All Submission Categories

Michelson-Morley Experiment Explanation

Authors: Harishankar kushwaha
Comments: 8 Pages. 4 figures

Michelson and Morley conducted experiments to investigate the possibility of luminiferous aether being present in the universe for light beam propagation. Is the experiment appropriate for detecting aether in the universe or not? Morley and Michelson conduct such exquisite experiments. However, there seems to be a discrepancy between the experimental and theoretical data. This may be because the derivation of the Michelson and Morley experiment did not include the speed of the light source. The objective of this theory is to use the new derivation of the Michelson and Morley experiment to include the light source speed and to observe the result. The main aim of this theory is to demonstrate that the velocity of light is relative, rather than independent. Interestingly, there has been little discussion about the source speed of light until now. In this paper, we utilize the classical mechanics of relative motion to derive the Michelson and Morley experiment. By introducing the light source speed in the derivation, our theoretical and experimental values will match. However, further experiments are required to fully prove whether the speed of light is constant or relative and whether it is dependent or independent.
Category: Classical Physics

The Babel Effect: Multilingual Performance Discrepancies in LLMs

Authors: Basab Jha
Comments: 5 Pages.

Large Language Models (LLMs) like GPT-4 and mBERT have revolutionized natural language processing (NLP) by providing multilingual capabilities, making it possible to develop models that handle diverse linguistic inputs across various languages. However, despite these advances, there remains a noticeable performance gap between how well these models perform in high-resource languages such as English and low-resource languages such as Nepali or Malagasy. We term this phenomenon the "Babel Effect," highlighting the disproportionate performance that arises from differences in resource availability across languages. This paper aims to explore the root causes of these performance discrepancies in LLMs, focusing on the underlying challenges in tokenization, training, and data scarcity. We utilize cross-lingual benchmarks, such as XGLUE and TyDiQA, to quantify these performance variations and examine them in detail. Furthermore, we propose solutions, including enhancing tokenization strategies, employing data augmentation techniques, and refining fine-tuning methods. The paper concludes with a discussion on how these improvements can mitigate the Babel Effect and lead to more equitable language modeling across diverse linguistic contexts.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Space Time Potential Theory: A Fundamental Second-Order Approach

Authors: Arend Lammertink
Comments: 9 Pages.

This paper presents a unified second-order model that resolves key limitations of traditional first-order potential theories in both fluid dynamics and electromagnetism. By employing the vector Laplacian and defining a space-time derivative operator, d/dt = −k∆, we establish a fundamental connection between spatial structure and temporal evolution, providing a more complete and physically consistent framework. This approach integrates the electric and magnetic fields with force and torque densities, reinterpreting charge, current, and electromagnetic fields in terms of fluid dynamic quantities such as mass density and momentum diffusivity. Additionally, the model proposes a potential unification of gravitational and electromagnetic forces by expressing the gravitational potential as proportional to the square of the electric field. This redefinition creates a seamless link between the two forces, treating gravitational interactions as a secondary effect of electric field behavior.Higher-order time derivatives, such as jerk and yank, are introduced to further extend the framework's ability to describe dynamic systems in both fluid and electromagnetic contexts. The results demonstrate consistency across scales, from quantum phenomena to cosmological dynamics, offering a comprehensive alternative to existing theories while eliminating gauge fixing ambiguities and enhancing mathematical coherence.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Black Hole Entropy Defines Limitations on the Radius of Spacetime

Authors: Eran Sinbar
Comments: 3 Pages.

This paper will prove mathematically, based on Bekenstein — Hawking black hole entropy equation , and based on the holographic principle , that space cannot have an infinite size.
Category: Astrophysics

Time Inversion as an Inevitable Element of the Universe’s Structure

Authors: Stan Levandovsky
Comments: 7 Pages.

This paper discusses the hypothesis of time inversion as a fundamental component of the universe’s structure. We explore the possibility that time inversion processes are an integral part of quantum mechanics and general relativity. Mathematical models are presented to describe time inversion mechanisms on both micro and macro levels, and the influence of these processes on causality and the evolution of the universe is also discussed.
Category: Quantum Physics

A New Continued Fraction Approximation and Bounds for the Psi Function

Authors: CholBok Ri, Kwang Ri, CholJun Choe
Comments: 10 Pages.

In this paper, we provide some useful lemmas for construction continued fraction based on a given power series. Then we establish a new continued fraction approximation and bounds for the psi function. Especially, we analytically determine all parameters of the continued fraction by Bernoulli numbers.
Category: Functions and Analysis

On the Distribution of the L Function

Authors: Theophilus Agama
Comments: 8 Pages.

In this short note, we study the distribution of the $ell$ function, particularly on the primes. We study various elementary properties of the $ell$ function. We relate the $ell$ function to prime gaps, offering a motivation for a further studies of this function.
Category: Number Theory

Syracuse Conjecture Quadrature UV

Authors: Rolando Zucchini
Comments: 47 Pages.

This paper shows the true nature of the Syracuse Conjecture. It is not fully provable. It’s a particular type of the Circle Quadrature, but its statement is confirmed. In other words: BIG CRUNCH (go back to 1) is always possible but BIG BANG (to move on) has no End.
Category: Number Theory

Hartree Algorithm

Authors: Marcello Colozzo
Comments: 6 Pages.

The self-compatible Hartree method is used in atomic physics to determine the energy levels of many-electron atoms. In this work we extend this procedure to electrons moving in the Coulomb field of a distribution of positive ions in a Bravais lattice.
Category: Condensed Matter

Proof of the Collatz Conjecture Using a Laplacian Matrix

Authors: Wiroj Homsup, Nathawut Homsup
Comments: 2 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Both authors should be listed on the submission form and please don't use all caps for author names!)

We prove that the second smallest Laplacian eigenvalue of a Collatz graph is greater than zero. Thus the Collatz graph is connected.
Category: Number Theory

A Logical Physical Theory

Authors: Nainan K. Varghese
Comments: 8 Pages. Essay written for Fqxi.org competition 2009

Logical development of physical theories is hindered by a lack of rational mechanisms of interactions between material bodies. This has led to many illogical assumptions. The concept currently used to facilitate interactions between material bodies—the ‘action at a distance through empty space'—has no mechanism of action. Vague forms of fields and aether, which are also in use, suffer lack of logical structure or mechanisms of action. Until these are replaced by a concept of a rational as well as a real entity to facilitate as a medium between the material bodies, the development of physical theories will continue to become more and more irrational. Matter is the only real entity in the universe. Hence, it is logical to expect the matter to provide structured material bodies as well as a universal medium that interlinks all material bodies in nature. Matter itself has to be in the form of an infinite number of basic matter particles. A logical theory based on only one type of postulated matter particle will lead to the development of an ideal universal medium. This universal medium should be able to account for all physical phenomena in nature, under the same rules and under all conditions.
Category: Classical Physics

New Aspects of the Temporal Evolution of the Universe

Authors: Martin Schauer
Comments: 6 Pages. Creative commons CC BY 4.0.

In 1929, Edwin Hubble measured the redshift and brightness (magnitude) of distant stars and plotted the redshift against the derived distance in what is now known as the Hubble diagram. This plot revealed a linear relationship, leading to the conclusion that the universe is expanding as a function of distance. However, to fully comprehend the temporal evolution of the universe, redshift must be plotted against time. When this is done consistently, it becomes evident that redshift has been continuously decreasing over time, suggesting that the expansion of the universe is also progressively slowing down. This observation challenges the necessity of postulating dark energy, and it is therefore recommended that the standard physical model be thoroughly reevaluated.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Automatic Increase Mechanism in Pension Benefits and Reform of the Korean National Pension System, 30% Return Rate Per Year

Authors: Hyun-Tak Kim
Comments: 6 Pages. 1 table, 2 Figures, in Korean

The government’s bill presented on 4th of September in 2024 issues as it violates both Article 34 of the Constitution, which guarantees "the right to a humane life," and Article 102, Paragraph 2 of the National Pension Act (Management and Operation of Funds), which stipulates that "to ensure the long-term stability of the National Pension Fund’s finances, its profits must be maximized." By addressing these violations, the government’s bill can be finalized. To rectify the violation of Article 34 of the Constitution, an automatic pension benefit increase mechanism must be introduced. To correct the violation of Article 102, Paragraph 2 of the National Pension Act, the legal rate of return must be set at a compound interest rate of at least 20% per year, while the actual rate of return must be targeted at 25% per year or higher. An external professional fund manager will be entrusted with managing the return rates, and a highest yield bidding system will be implemented. The pension fund must be invested for a period exceeding 10 years in long-term, steadily growing assets to generate compound interest effect, without investments in bonds that do not offer compound interest benefits. The pension operating committee’s authority to directly manage assets must be revoked. Legislation to support these measures must be enacted. Additionally, an example of a 30% rate of return per year will be provided.[요약]2024년 9월 4일 발표된 정부 법안은 헌법 34조(인간다운 삶을 살 권리)와 국민연금법 102조 ②항(기금의 관리 및 운영)에 명시된 "국민연금 기금의 장기적 안정을 위해서는 기금의 수익을 극대화해야 한다"는 내용을 모두 위반해 문제가 제기된다. 이러한 위반 사항을 해결하면 정부 법안이 최종적으로 마무리될 수 있다. 헌법 34조 위반을 바로잡기 위해 "연금 급여 자동 증가 장치"가 도입되어야 한다. 국민연금법 102조 ②항 위반을 바로잡기 위해 법정 수익률은 연 20% 이상의 복리로 정하고 실제 수익률은 연 25% 이상으로 목표를 설정해야 한다. 최상위 수익률 입찰 제도를 도입하여 외부 전문 펀드매니저에게 위탁하여 수익률을 관리해야 한다. 연금 기금은 복리효과가 날 수 있도록 장기적으로 꾸준히 성장하는 자산에 10년 이상 투자되어야 하며, 복리 혜택이 없는 채권에는 투자되지 말아야 한다. 연금 운영 위원회의 자산 직접 운용 권한만은 철회되어야 한다. 이러한 조치를 뒷받침하는 법률이 제정되어야 합니다. 추가로 약 30%/년 수익률의 예를 제공한다.
Category: Economics and Finance

New Calculations of the Masses of the W, Z and Higgs Bosons

Authors: Gang Chen, Tianman Chen, Tianyi Chen
Comments: 9 Pages. 1 Figures.

In our previous papers, we constructed a model for the masses of elementary particles and calculated the masses of elementary particles especially in atomic units. In this paper, based on the recent more accurate measurements of the masses of the W boson, the Z boson and the Higgs bosons, we revise our previous calculations and give news values of their masses which are 157248.297520661, 178449.921111111 and 244920.803503690 in atomic units, or 80353.714694 (24) MeV, 91187.722057(27) MeV and 125154.273069(26) MeV respectively. Compared to the latest and most accurate measured values of the masses of the W boson, the Z boson and the Higgs bosons which are 80360.2(9.9) MeV, 91187.6(2.1) MeV and 125.11(11) GeV respectively, our new calculated values are very precise if they are correct.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Schrödinger Equation Used to Describe the Revolution of the Earth

Authors: Runsheng Tu
Comments: 7 Pages. In Chinese

equation can be used to describe planetary motion, it must be of great significance. The potential energy in Hamiltonian operator is changed from electromagnetic interaction potential energy to gravitational interaction potential energy, and the Schrödinger equation which can describe planetary motion is successfully obtained. Solving the Schrödinger equation of the earth's revolution is relatively simple, and the energy eigenvalue obtained is completely consistent with the result obtained directly by classical mechanics. The direct significance of establishing and applying this equation is that classical mechanics and wave mechanics can be used to describe all objects at the same time (no longer limited by the mass of objects), which simplifies the calculation process of quantum mechanics. It is proved that classical mechanics and wave mechanics are compatible. The indirect meaning is that it can change the old concept that Schrödinger equation can't be used to describe macroscopic objects.
Category: Astrophysics

Big-Bang Black Holes

Authors: Clark M. Thomas
Comments: 14 Pages.

Black-hole mass cores are often considered to becandidates for new big bangs. Core locations alonedo not explain why so few black holes of any sizeever burst into new local universes of any sizewithin the overall 4D multiverse. This distinctionis outside 20th-century physics models, but stillinside our mental ability to well envision all linearphysical dimensions from the proper 21st-centuryperspective.
Category: Astrophysics

The Effect of Seiche on the Great Flood in the Liangzhu Area 4300 Years Ago

Authors: Zhi Cheng
Comments: 14 Pages.

This paper attempts to use the Seiche phenomenon to explain a huge flood that occurred in the Liangzhu region of Zhejiang Province in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River 4,300 years ago. According to the available archaeological evidence, the height of this flood reached about 100 meters. The cause of this Seiche phenomenon is the dam failure of glacial lakes formed in the Tarim and other basins in the western plateau of China after the end of the last glacial period. This paper estimates that if the dam of the Tarim Basin, which is filled with glacial lake water, fails, the flood water can easily flow into the East China Sea through the Hexi Corridor, causing geological disasters such as earthquakes, leading to a chain of dam failure effects in other basins in the west, and then more massive floods. The potential energy of the floods generated by the dam failure of these glacial lakes is enough to cause Seiche standing waves up to 150 meters high and 5 kilometers in wave length in places such as the East China Sea. Such a high amplitude Seiche standing wave may be the cause of the great flood in the Liangzhu area 4,300 years ago. Considering that the current global climate is rapidly warming and may cause more severe flooding, this paper also estimates that if a 30-kilometer radius of Greenland ice sheet dissolves and dumps into the ocean, the potential energy carried by this ice sheet will propagate to the North Sea in northern Europe, potentially causing Seiche standing waves with amplitudes of up to 50 meters. This Seiche standing wave can last for months, or even years. This will have a very serious impact on the countries bordering the North Sea and require our attention.
Category: Climate Research

A Connection Between the Darwin Term and a Non-Spherical Charge Distribution

Authors: John French
Comments: 7 Pages. This paper has been published in Physics Essays

A derivation of the Darwin term is given based on assuming a non-spherical charge distribution. The total translational energy of the system is obtained for a static electric field and the corresponding quantum equation is found to contain the Darwin term under certain conditions.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Mechanics of Electrostatic Attraction and Repulsion, a Conceptual Analysis

Authors: Francois Zinserling
Comments: 18 Pages.

Conceptual analysis finds Coulomb attraction and repulsion between integer charged particles from interactions with spin=2 photon-pairs. Primordial pairs transform to electrostatic pairs to form homogeneous (+E) or (-E) photon fields around particles of charge. Asymmetric fields create conditions for repulsion of same charged particles, or attraction of opposite charges. The Coulomb force effect is achieved through momentum transfer from photons to particles, giving the appearance of a force.
Category: Classical Physics

Nonlinear Macroscopic Optical Response Tensors for 2-Color Excitation and Electron- Multiphoton Interaction

Authors: Peter Krampl
Comments: 23 Pages.

An interesting aspect of this thesis should be mentioned right at the beginning. It was shown that the higher harmonics generated by non-centrosymmetric bonded electrons can take on properties of negative index systems. By controlling the nonlinearity, tailor-made optical metamaterials with a defined negative refractive index are possible. This becomes interesting in the context of the fact that matter waves with a refractive index of exactly minus one form the perfect microscope. A suitable set of new characteristic optical response tensors, which are no longer Lorentzartig in view of the newly gained knowledge, were derived for non-centrosymmetric media and their importance for the various nonlinear orbital response functions was shown and discussed. The nonlinear resonant denominator function can α be rewritten depending on the strength of the nonlinearity, where noncentrosymmetric matter scales in the nonlinear mode with negative SKEWNESS and centrosymmetric matter, as well as the transition bulk / surface with positive SKEWNESS, and the harmonics can be classified depending on the introduced parameters p and q. The nonlinearity in the denominator function takes into account the occurring skewness and the destabilization of increasing nonlinear amplitudes, in contrast to the current literature (e.g. Boyd), in which α occurs only as a proportionality factor, in which the amplitude is linearly and directly influenced and no destabilization of the amplitudes in the nonlinear regime is described. Due to the symmetry of non-centrosymmetric matter, no longitudinal modes are capable of propagation. The nonlinear dielectric spectral response function has singularities for non-dissipative matter at any transition frequency. The analysis taking into account dissipative effects showed an elimination of these singularities. You get curves with negative skewness. In the identified regions of negative dielectric function, a real refractive index of less than 1 exists. The refractive index is imaginary there, which is usually characteristic of surface plasmons. In this area, it is in principle possible to produce optical metamaterials by setting suitable nonlinearity. In the linear case, the spectral function has a zero position, so that longitudinal modes can also propagate for this. Variation of nonlinearity causes a very large positive or negative skew depending on the sign and shows frequency conversion. (Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words)
Category: Condensed Matter

Tourist Guide and Map, Meghalaya and the Graphical Law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 18 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Further repetition will not be accepted)

We study the names of the places in the Tourist Guide and Map, Meghalaya, designed, cartographed, printed and published by Indian Map Service, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India,in the year 2016. We draw the natural logarithm of the number of names, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithm of the rank of the letter, normalised. We conclude that the Tourist Guide and Map, Meghalaya, can be characterised by the magnetisation curve, BP(4,$beta H=0$), in the Bethe-Peierls approximation of the Ising Model, in the presence of four nearest neighbours and in the absence of external magnetic field, $m=0$ or,$beta H= 0$.
Category: Social Science

A New Quantum Theory of Everything: Reshaping Space-Time, Gravity, and Fundamental Interactions

Authors: Nasser Ahani
Comments: 12 Pages.

This paper presents a novel theory in quantum physics that explains the creation of space and time at sub-quantum scales(In this theory, the term sub-quantum refers to scales significantly smaller than the Planck length, where the fundamental oscillations of the Zurvan particle occur, and where the conventional rules of quantum mechanics may no longer apply). The theory addresses fundamental mysteries in quantum mechanics, providing a comprehensive explanation of the origin and mechanism of the Big Bang, and revealing the internal structure of black hole singularities. Additionally, it rejects the existence of dark matter and dark energy, while explaining the nature and mechanism of gravitational force and proving the unification of fundamental forces. The theory also defines the structure of light and electromagnetic waves, and challenges the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle by offering a detailed explanation at scales far below the quantum level, ultimately refuting it. Furthermore, it rejects the existence of several accepted fundamental particles, including the Higgs boson, photons, and gluons. This theory proposes a unified framework that revisits foundational concepts of modern physics, offering new insights into the structure of the universe.
Category: Quantum Physics

Microscopic Coherent Sources of Gravitational Radiation with Application to Forming a Stable Warp Field

Authors: Remi Cornwall
Comments: 6 Pages.

Recent US Congressional hearings on UAPs have made the study of exotic propulsion systems a matter of serious academic study and indeed, military necessity. This speculative paper looks at the possibility that microscopic sources could produce gravitational radiation with minimal energy requirements, whilst trapping the electromagnetic radiation stress-energy from being emitted. It may be possible to form an array of these micro-emitters of sufficient strength, acting with collective phenomenon, to allow non-linearities and the formation of soliton waves suitable for a putative warp field. Interestingly we find no need for exotic matter or negative energy. Moving onto the Alcubierre metric we ponder if the field could actually be made to travel superluminally by a repetitive stepped process of, expanding space just ahead of the craft initially to speed-up the propagation of the field, via the Shapiro Delay, so that a second field propagates that contracts space aggressively; the net effect being space contracting ahead of the craft faster than light.
Category: Astrophysics

Deterministic Structures in Gravitational Fields: A Unified Model Bridging Black Hole Singularities and Quantum Topology

Authors: Alfonso De Miguel bueno
Comments: 7 Pages.

This paper presents a deterministic model that unifies gravitational, strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions by examining the intersection of gravitational fields. These fields, which expand and contract periodically, create a shared nucleus of subfields characterized by complementary topological transformations. Within this framework, singularities are reinterpreted as abrupt curvature discontinuities, linking phenomena across quantum and cosmic scales. The model offers insights into energy and density transfer and information preservation. It explores connections to dark matter, reflection positivity, the mass gap problem, and Hodge cycles, providing a pathway to understand the breakdown of General Relativity in both atomic and black hole structures.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Extreme Nonlinear Fourier Optics: Singularities of High Harmonics (HHG) and Ultra Subharmonics ((u)subhg) Under the Aspect of Coherent Generation, Kinetics and Control of Photo and Spin Currents Depending on Matter Symmetry

Authors: Peter Krampl
Comments: 48 Pages. In German

This thesis describes in a new extended approach in (1)-(4) the generation and dynamics of photo- and spin currents in the nonlinear regime. For the first time, the description of the exact nonlinear behavior of photo-spin currents using correction factors of nonlinear approximations with an accuracy of up to small 7th order quantities was shown (2). In addition, the complex absorption behavior was examined in more detail and adapted to the real phenomena in a first extended approach (3). New "exotic" expressions were shown for a more precise description of the kinetics of photo- and spin currents in the high-energy nonlinear regime and their resulting nonlinear phenomena. The HOMO and LUMO orbital limit states were adapted to the new findings of nonlinear systems (4).In (5) nonlinear effects on geometric structures were shown, here in photonic crystals. The suppression of hysteresis effects in photonic crystals, as well as in all other micro- and nanoscale devices, will become of great importance in order to avoid disturbances caused by abrupt changes in dynamics, for example in geometric structures such as photonic crystals, to ensure a smooth transition between stable responses in the dielectric layers.Based on this, a nonlinear chemical potential was formulated in (6). Fermi-Dirac-like equilibrium coherences for electrons and holes on photonic crystals were shown. The changed nonlinear eigenfunctions and nonlinear eigenenergies show, by changing the chemical potential of the "Fermi" gas or "Fermi" liquid by a non-continuous phase transition of the 2nd order, that the entropy-rich system transitions into a lower-entropy solid-state system. This makes it possible to facilitate the transition between phases of different symmetry (e.g. crystal ↔, liquid) and different crystalline modifications (non-continuous transition).Finally, an abinitio nonlinear phase transition model for non-equilibrium phenomena was formulated (7). Taking into account many-body quantum theory, phase transitions in non-equilibrium were considered in more detail than nonlinear transitions. First- and second-order phase transitions were found due to nonlinearities. In addition, the particle behavior was formulated in a modified nonlinear high-energy evolution of Greenian functions with additional nonlinear terms and new expressions for the cube formula with new, extended nonlinear terms for nonlinear many-body systems were written down to a new comprehensive nonlinear cube formalism.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

New Approach to Affirm the Riemann Hypothesis II

Authors: Khazri Bouzidi Fethi
Comments: 2 Pages.

we will establish a relationship between the classic Riemann Zeta function and Gauss's estimate for the prime numbers for the sequence of ����= ������where s is a real s> 1. We will use The Dusarat 1999 inequality to show that P(x) ≃ π(x) or P(x) Gauss estimation of prime numbers P(x) =�������� and π(x) the function that counts prime numbers.The key to this proof is the sequence of ����= ������where s is a real s> 1
Category: Number Theory

The Two Way Interaction Between the Wave Function of the Universe and the Wigner’s Participators

Authors: Moninder Singh Modgil
Comments: 2 Pages.

We develop a formalism to describe the two way interaction between the universe and the "Participators" — a term introduced by Wigner, to replace the usual term "Observers". Role of biological aspects — brain and body in the "Quantum Measurement" or rather as we emphasize, "Perception", is discussed. We cite the experiments on perception of Necker’s cube and confirmation of Quantum Zeno Effenct (QZE) within the brain. Our approach of interaction between the universe and the Participators is a Quantum Mechanical version of the approach in the book "Self and its Brain" by Ecclles and Popper, and is analogous to the Newton’s third law of action and reaction.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Significant Gaps and Errors in the Interpretations of Special Relativity

Authors: Tadeusz Pastuszek
Comments: 16 Pages.

This article critically examines the commonly overlooked gaps and errors in the interpretations of the Special Theory of Relativity (STR), particularly in the treatment of the external and internal observers, the role of the Lorentz transformation, and the misapplication of moving reference frames. The core argument revolves around the objective versus subjective observations within STR, emphasizing the pivotal role of an external observer who perceives spacetime as a whole, in contrast to the limited perspective of internal observers. The discussion further extends to mathematical misinterpretations, such as the dimensional alignment of time and space, the improper handling of inertial frames, and inconsistencies in the application of Newtonian mechanics within relativistic contexts. These gaps underscore the needfor a refined conceptual framework in interpreting STR, paving the way for a more rigorous understanding of relativistic dynamics and its implications for modern physics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Quantum Fidelity

Authors: Laure Gouba
Comments: 7 Pages.

In this paper, quantum fidelity is introduced, starting with the Loschmidt echo. The quantum fidelity of teleportation is discussed and computed in an example of teleportation through a nonmaximally entangled channel.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Results of the Scan Pyramids Project and the Geometry of the Proposed Premises of the Khufu Pyramid

Authors: Andrey V. Voron
Comments: 9 Pages.

Based on the methods of formal logic, analogy and modeling, the article substantiates the assumption about the purpose of the pyramids of Egypt and, in particular, the pyramids of the Giza plateau as communication devices of a highly developed ancient civilization. Based on the analogy method, the presence of significant signs of a communication device in the pyramids of Egypt is shown. The modeling method allowed us to assume: the presence of carrier waves of the pyramids — gravitational waves of the planet Earth, the structure of its gravitational field and the presence of a tunnel with a gallery closed by a granite plug in the pyramid of Khufu.
Category: Archaeology

Unification of Gravitation and Electromagnetic Force: Including a New Theory of Gravitation

Authors: Zheng-hua Zhang
Comments: 19 Pages. In Chinese

In the current physics, not only the electromagnetic force and gravity are two different forces, but also the electric force and the magnetic force are obviously different. Starting from the discussion of magnetic force, it is believed that the interaction force between matter is not only due to the intrinsic properties of matter, but also related to some influence of the accumulation of surrounding matter. Thus charged and neutral bodies at rest are logically assigned velocities. The concept of momentum is extended, and the product of the mass of an electrically neutral body and its velocity is called mass momentum. The product of the charge of the charged body and its velocity is called charge momentum. It is assumed that there is a force between moving body, that the magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of their momenta, that (when they may be treated as mass points) is inversely proportional to the square of their distance, and that the direction of the force is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the body being acted upon. Based on the above hypothesis, the gravitational equation including the motion velocity is derived, and the magnetic field of the rotating object is also derived. Moreover, based on the above hypothesis, the electromagnetic force is sorted out and explained, and the electric force is given a new explanation, so that the electric force and the magnetic force become the same force. It also is same that the form of the electromagnetic force as the derived equations of gravity. The expression of gravity includes both attractive and repulsive forces, and the repulsive force cannot be observed (what is called gravity has no repulsive force) can be logically explained. Testable predictions are also presented.
Category: Classical Physics

Swedish Dictionary and the Graphical Law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 28 Pages.

We study the Swedish language words of the Swedish Dictionary, English-Swedish/Swedish-English,1997 Reprint. We draw the natural logarithm of the number of the Swedish language words, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithm of the rank of the letter, normalised/unnormalised. We find that the Swedish words underlie a magnetisation curve of a Spin-Glass in the presence of little external magnetic field.
Category: Linguistics

New Perspectives on Cosmic and Earthly Phenomena

Authors: Ulrich Schreier
Comments: 7 Pages. Published under CC BY 4.0 (Note by viXra Admin: Please use plain/standard article heading only without background images/wall papers)

Observations that challenged established theories, coupled with pivotal findings in the scientific literature, laid the groundwork for numerous insights and validations that ultimately led to Vincent and Rousseau’s cosmic model. This model underscores the profound interconnections between the cosmos, nature, and our daily lives—an areathat remains significantly under-explored by mainstream research.
Category: Astrophysics

A New Property of the Sheldon Prime

Authors: Pedro Baselga-Salinas
Comments: 5 Pages.

In this article, the author inquires into a new property for a set of numbers containing the Sheldon prime as the first term that allows to calculate summations just by solving a simple multiplication.
Category: Number Theory

An Interpretation of Ramanujan Mock θ-Functions

Authors: Juan Elias Millas Vera
Comments: 5 Pages.

In this paper I show a several generalizations of the Ramanujan’s Mock θ-functions. Using sigma and pi operators and defining the series.
Category: Functions and Analysis

A Comprehensive Framework for Selecting the Best Human-Centric Generative AI Model for Supply Chain Risk Management

Authors: Hamidreza Seiti, Reza Javadi, Hossein Ghanbari, Sina Keshavarz
Comments: 56 Pages. In Chinese (Converted to pdf by viXra admin - Please submit article in pdf format only)

Supply chain risk management is a critical challenge in today’s increasingly complex and interconnected global markets, particularly within specific supply chains where disruptions can have far-reaching consequences. Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) transformer models have emerged as powerful tools for effectively managing these risks. However, selecting the most suitable GAI model for specific supply chain contexts remains a significant challenge due to the diverse range of available models and the complex interplay of risk factors involved. This challenge is further compounded by the necessity of considering human-centric criteria to ensure that the chosen model aligns with ethical standards and practical needs. This paper addresses this challenge by introducing an enhanced multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) framework that refines the Evaluation based on Distance from Average Solution (EDAS) method. Our approach first improves the logical structure of the EDAS method and then incorporates the interactions and interdependencies between criteria, thereby overcoming key limitations of traditional MCDM methods and providing a more accurate and comprehensive evaluation process. We applied this improved EDAS model to the task of selecting the best GAI transformer model for risk management in the food supply chain. Through a systematic evaluation of various GAI models, considering their performance across multiple risk factors, our study identified GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) as the most suitable model for this context, demonstrating superior capabilities in addressing the complex challenges associated with food supply chain risks. This research not only advances the theoretical foundation of MCDM techniques but also offers practical insights into the application of AI in supply chain management, highlighting the importance of human-centric AI approaches that prioritize transparency, ethical alignment, and effective decision-making.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

A Heuristic for Skolems Solution for Linear-Recurrences, Based on the Lower Bound of the Non-Zero Magnitude of the Discrete Sine Function

Authors: Deepak Ponvel Chermakani
Comments: 2 Pages.

Our previous paper derived a result that an eventual non-zero lower bound ofminimum(absolute(sin(mπθ)), over positive integers m less than n), for large positive integers n, is (2 / (sqrt(5) n)). In this paper, we use this result to develop a heuristic to estimate the upper bound of the last non-periodic zero of any given homogenous linear recurrence with integer coefficients and integer starting points
Category: Number Theory

The Limited Scope of Economic Science in Explaining Altruism

Authors: Weston Koyama
Comments: 9 Pages.

This paper explores the concept of altruism within economic systems, defined here as actions that consciously act against one’s own economic self-interest. We begin with a review of economic literature where altruism is scarcely mentioned but indirectly addressed in discussions of regulatory frameworks, property rights, and market dynamics. Biological theories of altruism, specifically inclusive fitness, are then examined to highlight how evolutionary biology explains self-sacrificial behavior, such as kamikaze and suicide attacks, in ways that contrast sharply with economic models based on rational self-interest. Using a Nash Equilibrium model, we predict how altruism functions in real-world economic transactions, outlining interactions between fake altruism, semi-altruism, and pure altruism, and demonstrating that pure altruism leads to consistent economic losses for the altruistic individual. Simulation results show that injecting 30% altruism into a scarcity-driven economy results in widespread poverty for most participants, confirming that pure altruism is unsustainable in such environments. However, cultural conditioning, as demonstrated through Hofstede’s model of national cultures, suggests that altruism is a more complex and variable phenomenon than simple economic or biological models account for. This paper concludes that more research is needed to incorporate cultural, psychological, and environmental factors into the study of altruism in economic science, as current models oversimplify the nuanced landscape of altruistic behavior.
Category: Economics and Finance

AI-Powered Underwriting Engines in Embedded Lending: Revolutionizing Credit Decisioning for Financial Inclusion

Authors: Meir Dudai
Comments: 46 Pages.

This paper explores the transformative potential of AI-powered underwriting engines in revolutionizing credit decisioning processes for embedded lending. Traditional methods of credit assessment often fall short in accurately evaluating creditworthiness, particularly for underserved populations. AI-powered underwriting engines address these limitations by leveraging machine learning algorithms and alternative data sources to provide more comprehensive and nuanced credit evaluations. This study examines the current landscape of credit decisioning, identifying key challenges and presenting a detailed analysis of AI-powered underwriting engines, including their technical architecture, key features, and potential for improving accuracy, speed, and inclusivity in lending decisions. The paper also considers implementation strategies, potential business impacts, and critical risk and compliance considerations. Finally, it looks ahead to future directions and scalability of AI-powered underwriting engines, considering emerging technologies and evolving regulatory landscapes.Index Terms—AI, credit decisioning, embedded lending, financial inclusion, machine learning, underwriting engines
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Formula for pi Involving Exponents of Mersenne Primes

Authors: Predrag Terzic
Comments: 1 Page.

Conjectured formula for pi is introduced.
Category: Number Theory

There Are no Extraordinary Cycles in Collatz Conjecture

Authors: Chao Chen
Comments: 3 Pages.

In this paper, through the careful study and thinking of the Collatz conjecture, We give a short proof for any positive integer odd number x, when the odd number x is equal to 1, the cyclesequence is: 1, 1, 1, · · · , When the odd number x is greater than 1, there is no Extraordinary cyclic sequence.
Category: Geometry

The Epistemology of Contemporary Physics: Introduction

Authors: Taha Sochi
Comments: 23 Pages.

This is the first of a series of papers that we intend to publish about the epistemology of fundamental physics in its current state. One of the main objectives of these papers is to improve our understanding of fundamental physics (and modern physics in particular) from an epistemological and interpretative perspective (i.e. versus formal perspective). Another main objective is to investigate and assess the merit of searching for a unified physical theory (the so-called "theory of everything") considering the fact that contemporary physics is a collection of theories created and developed by different individuals and groups of scientists in different eras of history reflecting different levels of scientific, philosophical and epistemological development and dealing with largely separate physical phenomena and hence such unification may mean "stitching together" an inhomogeneous collection of theoretical structures which may be clumsy (if not impossible) at least from an epistemological viewpoint.
Category: History and Philosophy of Physics

Relativity's Nontheoretical Inutility: An Argument for the Factual Pragmatism of Classical Physics

Authors: Ken Gonder
Comments: 27 Pages.

Relativity has little practical relevance in our real nontheoretical three-dimensional classical Newtonian environment. Its founding premise, light's (presumed) constancy, is conceptually impossible. It only works theoretically in the one dimension of linear motion and only in one direction. In the three actual dimensions of our tangible physical existence, its required contraction in the forward direction that would maintain its constancy in motion would always be in conflict with its noncontracted velocity to the sides and its necessary expanded velocity to the rear. In reality, light's velocity can only compound mechanically with the motion of its source and that of other bodies/reference frames (which is what all of the Michelson-Morley type experiments actually show). And that's in addition to its factual variability that Einstein also asserts despite the invalidating contradiction. Space doesn't actually exist either. It's the nothingness between objects. And neither does time. It's not an inherent property of the universe. So there can be no such thing as "space-time." But it's preemptively invalidated anyway by its inconceivable four-dimensionality that he also has impossibly curving two-dimensionally as it dents underneath three-dimensional massive bodies to contradictorily cause them to mechanically react instantly at the speed of light while somehow creating an attractive force that pulls them together facilitated by unobservable massless graviton particles. His "principle of equivalence" is just as unworkable. Acceleration/braking's one-dimensional opposite uniform reaction and rotation's two-dimensional outward dispersive centrifugal reaction cannot in any way be interpreted as gravity. Nor are they even remotely equivalent to natural mass-created gravity's three-dimensional inward coalescing/condensing. Einstein's "finite and yet unbounded" universe, that with expansion has become the big bang, is strictly theoretical as well. To maintain its observed uniformity, he has it expressing two-dimensionally like the surface of a sphere. Existence being physically impossible in two dimensions, it also can't be real. With relativity's manifest impracticality and the purely theoretical nature of its fundamental constituents, nearly all of it can be factually qualified as useless. This realization not only renews our appreciation for the commonsense validity of classical physics but also our faith in the innate rationality of the universe in general.
Category: Classical Physics

Inertial, Inertial Law and Inertial Reference System

Authors: Zheng-hua Zhang
Comments: 5 Pages. In Chinese

Analyze the explanation of inertial and inertial reference system by Galileo, Newton, Lange and so on, remove the unreasonable content, analyze the applicable conditions of the laws of Newtonian mechanics, think that: Inertial is the object’s ability to keep the former motion state. The object will keep its former motion state without new forces acting on it. And the object’s former motion state is variable motion. Inertial reference system is the reference system which can separate the motion of the object being studied under specific force out alone from the former variable motion state. If the force f acts on the object being studied rather than the reference object, and the other acting forces besides f don’t cause relative motion of them, or may cause relative motion but can be removed by reasonable ways, then under this condition observe and study the motion law of the object being studied under the force f, the reference system fixed on the reference object is inertial reference system.
Category: Classical Physics

The Sedimentation of Photons and Gluons in the Svedberg Ultracentrifuge

Authors: Miroslav Pardy
Comments: 9 Pages. Original article

We consider the case of rotating black body (including the rotation of the black bath with gluons) where photons and gluons can perform the settling and sedimentation. The Planck formula for photons must be, in this situation, replaced by the Exner solution of the Lamm equation for photons.
Category: Quantum Physics

Deriving a New Formula for the Nth Prime Based on Empirical Observations

Authors: Shreyansh Jaiswal
Comments: 9 Pages.

We discuss some simple ideas and facts about the following function C(n) := P(n)/n log nand it’s implication for estimation of the nth prime number. We also present some rather nontrivial empirical observations regarding this function, which are the base for a new function for the nth prime we propose.
Category: Number Theory

Basics of Parametric Decay Instability in Magnetized Plasma

Authors: Ilya Shesterikov
Comments: 8 Pages.

Parametric decay instabilities frequently occur in wave interactions.These instabilities typically have thresholds for wave amplitudes. They arise when nonlinearity, such as a spatial pressure inhomogenety, couples different waves. For these instabilities to arise, the waves must satisfy frequency and wavenumber matching conditions, which followfrom the laws of energy and momentum conservation. However, parametric instabilities are not limited to wave interactions; the simples form of parametric instability is parametrically coupled oscillators.Magnetoactive plasma represents a unique wave medium in whichnumerous waves of various polarizations and spatial-temporal scales are easily excited and weakly damped. The greater the number of wave types, the easier it is to satisfy resonance conditions like the frequency and wavenumber matching conditions, and thus parametrically excite, or "drive" new waves from the initial wave. Therefore, inmagnetoactive plasma, all known types of parametric instabilities can arise.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

The Dirac Equation and the Wheeler-Feynman Time-Symmetric Theory

Authors: James Conor O'Brien
Comments: 27 Pages.

In previous papers —specifically A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Potential [2018]—electrons were modelled as longitudinal electromagnetic scalar potentials which generate both electromagnetic waves travelling in R1,3 as well as perfectly spherical charged particles in R3 by satisfying Maxwell’s equations under the Wheeler-Feynman time symmetric theory. In this present paper that model is extended by giving derivations of the Klein-Gordon equation, the Gamma Matrices and the Dirac equation through an examination of the Wheeler-Feynman Time Symmetric theory through an examination of the Parallelogram Law and the Inner Product of the four-vector potentials.Keywords: Dirac’s Equation, Gamma Matrices, Spherical Electrons, Wheeler-Feynman Time-Symmetric Theory, longitudinal electromagnetic scalar potential waves, Wheeler-Feynman electromagnetic four-vector potential time symmetric theory (WFEFVPTST), Parallelogram Law.
Category: Quantum Physics

Coraz Conjecture that there is no Non-Trivial Cycle

Authors: Chao Chen
Comments: 4 Pages. In Chinese

This paper studies whether there is a non-trivial cyclic sequence in Koraz's conjecture. Using the proof by contradiction method, it is obtained that for any positive integer odd number x0, when x0 is equal to 1, a trivial cycle will occur, and the cyclic sequence is: 1, 1, 1, · · · , the conclusion that no non-trivial cyclic sequence will occur when x0 is a positive integer odd number greater than 1.

本文研究了考拉兹猜想是否存在非平凡循环序列问题. 利用反证法, 获得了对于任意一个正整数奇数x0, 当x0 等于1 时产生平凡循环, 循环序列为:1, 1, 1, · · · , 当x0 为大于1 的正整数奇数时不产生非平凡循环序列的结论.
Category: Geometry

The Bubble Theory and Cosmic Phenomena: A Higher-Dimensional Perspective

Authors: Jameel Chamberlain
Comments: 5 Pages.

The Bubble Theory proposes a higher-dimensional framework in which the fourth spatial dimension hosts multiple energy-matter structures, or "bubbles," coexisting within the same spatiotemporalcoordinates. Central to this theory is the ’S’ Energy Field, a higher-dimensional field through whichunique ’S’ Energy wavelengths propagate, binding matter and maintaining bubble integrity. This paper extends the Bubble Theory to explore its implications for black holes, dark matter, dark energy,and quantum phenomena. By modeling these cosmic phenomena through the lens of the BubbleTheory, we aim to provide new insights and propose potential avenues for experimental validation.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Zero-Expansion Behavior for the New $3D$ Spherical Warp Drive Vector Compared with the Natario Original Warp Drive

Authors: Fernando Loup
Comments: 13 Pages.

The Natario warp drive appeared for the first time in 2001. Although the idea of the warp dive as a spacetimedistortion that allows a spaceship to travel faster than lightpredated the Natario work by 7 years Natario introduced in2001 the new concept of a propulsion vector to define or togenerate a warp drive spacetime.Natario defined a warp drivevector for constant speeds in Polar Coordinates and PolarCoordinates uses only two dimensions and we know that a realspaceship is a tridimensional 3D object inserted inside atridimensional 3D warp bubble that must be defined in real 3DSpherical Coordinates.The "ex-libris" of the Natario 2001original paper was the so-called "zero-expansion" behavior in theexpansion of the normal volume elements that occurs only in 2DPolar Coordinates but not in tridimensional $3D$ SphericalCoordinates.We demonstrate this affirmation in the present work.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Step Derivative Equations of Inertial Motion in the Classical Mechanics: Conservation Laws

Authors: Bojidar Djordjev
Comments: 15 Pages.

In the Newtonian Mechanics, any force exerted by body A on B accelerates B, while the acceleration of B creates an equal and opposite force accelerating A back. We can accelerate one body only at the expense of the opposite acceleration of another body. Therefore, we can only exchange acceleration for acceleration, because force only creates acceleration (F = ma), and acceleration only creates force (a = F/m). With other words, we can equal mathematically, and respectively exchange physical derivatives of the displacement of two bodies only if they are the same (of the same power). But in Classical Mechanics there are formulas that relate force as a function of the product of two velocities (Fc = mv) instead of the function of acceleration (F=ma). If we substitute the two force expressions into Newton’s Third Law, it turns out that we mathematically equate acceleration as function of the product of two velocities. That is, we equate derivatives of the displacement of the two bodies of different degrees (acceleration = function (speed times speed). We define this dependence as the step derivative equation of inertial motion. If this dependence is not a product of mathematical formalism, but is real physical, inertial, it means that we can exchange real acceleration of one body for real speed of the other. The disproportion in the equations of the step derivatives of inertial motion affects the Laws of Conservation of Angular Momentum and Momentum. The development has been confirmed experimentally.
Category: Classical Physics

One Way Equations in the Classical Mechanics: Conservation Laws

Authors: Bojidar Djordjev
Comments: 4 Pages.

The paper provides analysis that the generation of the gyroscopic torque described by the vector multiplication is one-way inertial phenomenon. Respectively, vector multiplication is one-way equation from the type: If B times C is equal A, A is not equal B times C. Presumably, it affects the Conservation Laws.
Category: Classical Physics

The Proof of the Fermar's Last Theorem, Mersenne's Prime Conjecture and Poincare Conjecture in Euclidean Geomertry

Authors: Liao Teng
Comments: 14 pages

In order to strictly prove from the point of view of pure mathematics Goldbach's 1742 Goldbach conjecture and Hilbert's twinned prime conjecture in question 8 of his report to the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1900, and the French scholar Alfond de Polignac's 1849 Polignac conjecture, By using Euclid's principle of infinite primes, equivalent transformation principle, and the idea of normalization of set element operation, this paper proves that Goldbach's conjecture, twin primes conjecture and Polignac conjecture are completely correct. In order to strictly prove a conjecture about the solution of positive integers of indefinite equations proposed by French scholar Ferma around 1637 (usually called Ferma's last theorem) from the perspective of pure mathematics, this paper uses the general solution principle of functional equations and the idea of symmetric substitution, as well as the inverse method. It proves that Fermar's last theorem is completely correct.
Category: Number Theory

Fractional Order System Identification with State Delay

Authors: HyonSong Yun, SungChol U, KungNam Kim, MyongHyok Sin
Comments: 10 Pages.

In this paper, we consider the continuous time fractional order system with unknown state . The fractional integral operational matrix of the block pulse functions(BPFs) is upper triangular Toeplitz. Using the commutativity and nilpotent property of upper triangular Toeplitz, we propose an efficient identification method in which the nonlinear parameters. The accuracy of the proposed method is illustrated by several simulations.
Category: General Mathematics

An IMC-like Design of LQR-PID Controller Using Optimal Weight of Sensitivity Function

Authors: Hyon Sung-Yun, Sung Chol U, Sung Chol Kim, Myong hyok Sin
Comments: 15 Pages.

Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller is remained as the most widely used controller for many industrial applications even though it was developed decades ago. This is because of its simplicity, satisfactory control performance and robustness. The classical and empirical PID tuning rules are applicable only to the FOPDT and cannot guarantee its optimality. The Ziegler-Nichols frequency response method is regarded as a basis of relay feedback auto-tuning because it uses the only information at the phase crossover frequency. The Ziegler-Nichols tunings are quite aggressive for lag- dominant processes but sluggish for delay-dominant processes. The IMC-PID settings yield good servo performance and robustness, they result in poor LD (load disturbance) rejection for lag-dominant plants. We have proposed a new method of determining LQ index in consideration of dominant pole placement for desired performance and derive a simple LQR-PID tuning formula via IMC-like H∞ approach for first order plus dead-time systems. We have determined the weight for sensitivity function so that LQ optimization is equivalent to the H∞ optimization of the weighted sensitivity function. The proposed PID controller has the same performance as LQR controller and the tuning method is simple, since it does not need to solve the Riccati algebraic equation. We also present other two tuning methods for PID controller: LQR-like and pole-placement-like ones. The new contributions in this paper are: determination of LQ index for dominant poles placement and optimal weight for sensitivity, and derivation of LQR-PID tuning methods via IMC-like approach, LQR and pole-placement approaches. The effectiveness of the proposed methodology and the identity of the PID parameters tuned by those three methods have been demonstrated via simulation.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Method of Problem Design and Problem Evaluation in Engineering PBL Education

Authors: Ri Tong Hyok, Kim Yu Hyon, Kim Tong Hyok
Comments: 18 Pages.

At present, it is quite vital to make appreciate problems to apply to practical use for raising furthermore the effectiveness of engineering PBL teaching.Especially, a practical methodology is being required by problem-makers to apply problem design theory to their teaching practice.This paper refers to reviewing the preceding 3C3R problem design theory and its application method, and then presenting definition about PBL problem, the essence of problem design and general requirements arising in designing problems, and some steps of problem design in engineering teaching practice. In addition, we have offered an estimation model of a task amount of problem by means of relative level estimation value, and comprehensive quality estimation model of a problem and then illustrated its detailed applications to design and estimation of the problem.
Category: Education and Didactics

Theory of the Four-Dimensional Electromagnetic Universe: Derivation of the Energy-Time Uncertainty Principle for Temporal Waves and Their Stability

Authors: Domenico Maglione
Comments: 6 Pages.

In this paper, we derive a specific form of the energy-time uncertainty principle as it applies to Temporal Waves (TWs) in the context of the Four-Dimensional Electromagnetic Universe (4DEU) Theory, providing further evidence of the stability of TWs from the beginning and throughout the four-dimensional (4D) universe's expansion. In this model, the universe is proposed to exist in four real spatial dimensions, with the fourth dimension, which we perceive as time, along which the cause of the 4D universe's expansion acts. TWs play a fundamental role in the formation and expansion of the 4D universe, with this expansion being caused by their radiation pressure. In this work, we derive the specific form of the uncertainty principle for TWs, demonstrating that the product of the uncertainties in the TW energy and privileged time is not merely constrained by a lower bound, as in the canonical uncertainty principle, but is exactly equal to h/4. In contrast to the canonical uncertainty principle, where the product of uncertainties is greater than or equal to h/4π, in the case of TWs this product is strictly equal to h/4, indicating a precise and unique relationship in the 4DEU theory. Our findings also confirm the stability of TWs from the beginning and throughout all phases of the 4D universe’s expansion, ensuring their persistence over time. This paper offers further mathematical evidence supporting the stability of TWs and strengthens the foundational principles of the Theory of the Four-Dimensional Electromagnetic Universe.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

New Methods Based on the Calculation of Specific Decimal Fractions for Decomposing an Integer Into a Product of Prime Factors

Authors: bouchaïb Bahbouhi
Comments: 27 Pages.

This article presents for the first time two methods for decomposing integers in products of prime factors which are based on the calculation of decimal fractions. Its originality lies in the fact that the divisors used are decimals and not prime divisors and in addition the decimal part is manipulated in such a way that two decimal digits are fixed and the others are variable. In the first method, the divisors are of type 2n and which have a very interesting particularity which is that they always have two same digits at the end of their decimal parts (25 or 75). And it is this particularity which is exploited to develop these methods. The other method introduces a new notion that of the decomposition key which is a product of prime factors used to decompose all numbers having the same number of digits. It is similar to the first method because it also uses decimal fractions for the calculation and the denominator is the square root. This article paves the way for new applications in computer science.
Category: General Mathematics

Problem of Principal Axis and DBZC: Tan(pi/2)=0

Authors: Saburou Saitoh
Comments: 3 Pages.

In this note, we would like to see the fundamental result $tan(pi/2)=0$ from the famous problem of principal axis in connection with the division by zero calculus $frac{f(x)}{(x - a)^n}|_{x =a} : = frac{f^{(n)}(a)}{n!}.$
Category: General Mathematics

Theory of Universal Resonance and Unified Fields

Authors: Karim Bourébi
Comments: 48 Pages. In French

The **Universal Resonance Theory (URT)** proposes a new approach to explaining gravitation by unifying the principles of quantum physics and general relativity through the concept of resonance in a fundamental quantum field, analogous to space-time. According to this theory, the universe is structured by a vibrating web, where each matter particle generates resonant waves proportional to its mass.Particle Resonance: Massive particles generate specific frequencies in a universal resonance field. These frequencies interact to create resonances that can be interpreted as attractive forces between particles, thereby replacing the traditional concept of gravitation.Space-Time Structure: Space-time is perceived as a dynamic matrix of resonances. Masses cause distortions in this matrix, creating paths of lower resonance, analogous to geodesics in general relativity.Unification of Forces: URT suggests that gravity could be an electromagnetic phenomenon on a cosmic scale, thereby linking gravity and electromagnetism. This could provide a new understanding of the fundamental forces, including dark matter and dark energy.Predictions and ImplicationsURT proposes that gravitational interactions are emergent effects of quantum resonances between particles, which could explain previously unexplained gravitational phenomena. The theory also predicts that the speed of light and other fundamental constants can be reinterpreted in terms of resonance.Technological Perspectives:Understanding and manipulating these resonances at the quantum scale could lead to major technological innovations, such as gravity control, new propulsion methods, and advanced communication systems.In summary, URT offers a new perspective to unify quantum physics and general relativity, opening potential avenues for solving cosmological mysteries and developing revolutionary technologies.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Global Wellposedness for the Homogeneous Periodic Navier-Stokes Equation Small Initial Data

Authors: En-Lin Liu
Comments: 14 Pages. If there is any error in the proof, please let me know.

We consider the homogeneous incompressible Navier-Stokes equations on periodic domain mathbb{T}^{d} with sufficiently small initial datum. For dgeq3 and sgeqfrac{d}{2}-1, the equations are globally wellposed in the energy space L_{t}^{infty}dot{H}_{x}^{s}left(mathbb{R}^{+};mathbb{T}^{d}ight)cap L_{t}^{2}dot{H}_{x}^{s+1}left(mathbb{R}^{+};mathbb{T}^{d}ight) in the critical sense if the initial data u_{0} is divergence free, mean zero and leftVert u_{0}ightVert _{dot{H}_{x}^{s}left(mathbb{T}^{d}ight)} is sufficiently small. We use Strichartz estimates for the heat kernel, bilinear Strichartz estimates to obtain an iteration scheme critically depending on the value of e^{ttriangle}u_{0} in L_{t}^{2}dot{H}_{x}^{s}left(left[0,Tight];mathbb{T}^{d}ight) norm. Use such iteration scheme, we can prove uleft(tight) is decreasing in dot{H}_{x}^{s}left(mathbb{T}^{d}ight) with time t. The decay property guarantees the global existence and wellposedness.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Friedmann Versus Einstein Coordinates for Cosmology

Authors: Jonathan J. Dickau, Steven K. Kauffmann, Stanley L. Robertson
Comments: 13 Pages.

The James Webb Space Telescope has discovered a large population of bright compact galaxies in the early universe. Their abundance suggests that the early universe may not have expanded as explosively as Big Bang cosmology implies, that it may have been relatively more compact for a longer period of time. It is plausible that the physical issue with the Robertson-Walker metric form in this regard is Friedmann's 1922 coordinate condition, which makes gravity effectively Newtonian, devoid of gravitational time dilation. Einstein's successful 1915 coordinate condition in contrast permits the metric to be Lorentz covariant and compels it to always have a matrix inverse, a constraint which the Big Bang flouts. We exhibit a transformation of the Robertson-Walker metric form to Einstein coordinates, and we study in detail the radial evolution, in respectively Friedmann and Einstein coordinates, of the very simplest expanding-dust-sphere cosmology model. The deceleration of cosmic expansion in Friedmann coordinates is changed in Einstein coordinates to its acceleration, and the Big Bang in Friedmann coordinates is swapped in Einstein coordinates for a peak in that inflation.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Dictionary of Computers Edited by Pankaj Dhaka and the Graphical Law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 20 Pages.

We study the entries in the Dictionary of Computers edited by Pankaj Dhaka.We draw the natural logarithm of thenumber of entries, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithm of therank of the letter, normalised.We conclude that the Dictionary can be characterised by BP(4,$beta H=0.05$) i.e. amagnetisation curve in the Bethe-Peierls approximation of theIsing model with four nearest neighbours in the presence of external magnetic field, H, with $beta H=0.05$.$beta$ is $frac{1}{k_{B}T}$ where, T is temperature and$k_{B}$ is the tiny Boltzmann constant.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Tamm-Davydov Algorithm

Authors: Marcello Colozzo
Comments: 11 Pages.

The Hamiltonian operator of a one-dimensional nonrelativistic quantum system, consisting of a particle of mass m subjected to a periodic potential energy V(x) in the coordinate x, admits exclusively eigenfunctions in the improper sense. In this work, we show that a sufficient condition for the Hamiltonian to be endowed with eigenfunctions in the proper sense is constituted by a suitable local violation of the periodicity of the function V(x).
Category: Quantum Physics

Closed Form Solution to the Hubble Tension Based on Rh = ct Cosmology

Authors: Espen Gaarder Haug
Comments: 9 Pages.

Haug and Tatum have recently solved the Hubble tension within a type of Rh = ct cosmology using an intuitive, smart trial-and-error search algorithm. The trial-and-error algorithm demonstrates that one can start with the measured CMB temperature and a rough estimate of H0. Based on the algorithm, one ends up matching the entire distance ladder of the observed supernovas by finding a value for H0. However, this is a numerical search procedure, even though it can be completed in a fraction of a second on a standard computer. Here, we will demonstrate that the trial-and-error numerical method is not needed and that the Hubble tension can be resolved using the same Haug and Tatum model through a closed- form solution. This means one simply solves an equation to find the correct H0 value. This is possible because an exact mathematical relation between H0 and the CMB temperature has recently been established, in combination with the linearity in an Rh = ct model.
Category: Astrophysics

The Pioneer Effect, Fermat's Last Theorem and the Gravitational Constant G.

Authors: Bezverkhniy Volodymyr Dmytrovych.
Comments: 6 Pages.

Using the mechanical interpretation of the derivative and analyzing the function y = x^n, we can derive the general form of the equation for Newton's law of universal gravitation. From the general and more precise formulation of the law of gravitation, it follows that the gravitational constant G (if the equation is written in the traditional form) is no longer constant and will increase with increasing distance between interacting bodies.
Category: Astrophysics

The Pioneer Effect, Fermat's Last Theorem and the Gravitational Constant G (in Russian).

Authors: Bezverkhniy Volodymyr Dmytrovych.
Comments: 6 Pages.

Using the mechanical interpretation of the derivative and analyzing the function y = x^n, we can derive the general form of the equation for Newton's law of universal gravitation. From the general and more precise formulation of the law of gravitation, it follows that the gravitational constant G (if the equation is written in the traditional form) is no longer constant and will increase with increasing distance between interacting bodies. Используя механическую трактовку производной и анализируя функцию y = x^n, можно вывести общую форму уравнения для закона всемирного тяготения Ньютона. Из общей и более точной формулировки закона тяготения следует, что гравитационная постоянная G (если уравнение записать в традиционной форме) уже не является постоянной и будет возрастать с увеличением расстояния между взаимодействующими телами.
Category: Astrophysics

A New Formula for the Riemann Hypothesis

Authors: Ciro Cesarano
Comments: 15 Pages.

By a simple extension of rearrangement definition of a simply converging series, at non standard model of analysis, the author finds a new formula for ζ* (s) with s C*complex hyperreal numbers set with a *> 0 and with s ≠1 .However this new formula is very easily extendable at the whole complex plane with s ≠1 . Notable result is that with the definition of " non standard rearrangement " the commutative property of addition continues to hold even for simply convergent series (such as harmonic series with alternate signs). Moreover the author, by means of the new formula of ζ*(s) and the corresponding functional equation, gives a proof of the Riemann hypothesis.
Category: Number Theory

The Bubble Theory: A Fourth-Dimensional Energy-Matter Framework

Authors: Jameel Chamberlain
Comments: 7 Pages.

The Bubble Theory introduces a novel framework for understanding the fourth spatial dimensionas a multi-layered energy-matter structure coexisting within the same time and space as our observable universe. Central to this theory is the concept of an ’S’ Energy Field—a higher-dimensionalenergy field through which unique ’S’ energy wavelengths propagate. These wavelengths bind matterin the fourth dimension (4D), allowing distinct energy-matter units, or "bubbles," to coexist independently even when overlapping spatially. Each bubble maintains its integrity through its unique ’S’energy signature, preventing interference with other bubbles unless their energy signatures becomeinsufficiently unique, leading to potential interlinking. This paper formalizes the principles of theBubble Theory, develops mathematical models to support the framework, and discusses implicationsfor higher-dimensional physics and potential avenues for experimental validation.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Materialism as a Gnosiological and Methodological Principle and the "Hierarchy" of Dmitry Krivenko

Authors: Yaroslav D. Krivenko-Emetov
Comments: 5 Pages. keywords: alternative philosophy in the USSR, methodology of science. Philosophy, dialectical materialism, hierarchical logic, hierarchics

On the 30th anniversary of the death of Dmytro Tarasovych Krivenko (October 30, 1941, the village of Velyka Racha, Radomyshl district, Zhytomyr region — October 4, 1994, Kyiv) — philosopher, methodologist of science, Candidate of Philosophical Sciences (1976), one of the developers of alternative Ukrainian philosophy during Soviet times.
Category: History and Philosophy of Physics

Resonance Phenomena May be Interpreted by DBZC: $(f(x)/x )(x=0):= F^prime(0)$

Authors: Saburou Saitoh
Comments: 2 Pages.

In this note, we would like to show the simple result that resonance phenomena may be interpreted by DBZC: $(f(x)/x )(x=0):= f^prime(0)$ by a typical simple example.
Category: General Mathematics

Two Types of Universal Arrows

Authors: Zhao-Dan Lee
Comments: 10 Pages.

A universal arrow is a pair which consists of an object and a morphism. And an isomorphism is defined by a universal arrow. The isomorphism may be a composition of two morphisms. We may define two types of universal arrows, which is determined by the properties of the morphisms. A universal arrow is of the type I if the morphisms are not isomorphisms; And a universal arrow is of the type II if the morphisms are isomorphisms.
Category: General Mathematics

Numerical Solution of Bagley-Torvik Equation Based on Hybrid Functions

Authors: YongGwon Pak, KumSong Jang, MyongHyok Sin1, NamHo Kim
Comments: 8 Pages.

This paper proposes an efficient numerical solution of Bagley-Torvik equation which shows vibrating process of a rigid plate immersed in a Newtonian fluid. The proposed approaches are proved to get numerical solution with high accuracy for fractional order differential equation of a version of different Bagley-Torvik equation by simulation.
Category: Number Theory

Identification of Conformable Fractional Order System with Input Delay

Authors: KumSosng Jang, YongKwon Pak, MyongHyok Sin1, NamHo Kim
Comments: 10 Pages.

Classical fractional derivative does not reflect hysteresis characteristic, the unique characteristic of fractional derivative. In order to overcome it, identification approach for the system with input delay expressed by conformable fractional order derivative is proposed. Simulation results shows that the proposed approach infers systematic parameters with high accuracy.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Constraining Method of Control Input Acceleration by Using MPC

Authors: Kim Yong Nam, Choe Song Byok, Ri Kyong Hyok, Choe Jong Hyok
Comments: 13 Pages.

If we account the constraints on the incremental acceleration as well as the incremental rate of the control input in the control system, the physical limit of the actuator can be considered and the stress of the system can be reduced.This paper deals with the design of the model predictive controller with the constraint on the incremental acceleration of the control input. The discrete time state space model of the plant is extended to the augmented model which has the incremental acceleration of the control input as the new input. The quadratic cost function, which is based on the control error and the incremental acceleration of the control input, is adopted. Constraints on the plant output, the control input, its incremental rate and acceleration are accounted. This constrained MPC problem can be solved by the quadratic programming procedure.To select the reasonable sampling period and prediction horizon, the lower bound of the settling time is derived for the proposed MPC system. Numerical examples illustrate the validity and effectiveness of the proposed method.
Category: Number Theory

Basic Assumption in Physics

Authors: Nainan K. Varghese
Comments: 4 Pages. Originaly published on http://fqxi.org/data/essay-contest-files/Varghese_Basic_assumption_i.pdf

Lack of a fundamental set of assumptions in physics encourages or often compels physicists to conceive different sets of assumptions (often unrelated) for different phenomena. When taken together, they often contradict each other. Because of numerous contemporary assumptions, physics is no longer an exact science. This affair can be remedied only by sorting out the existing assumptions and tabulating one basic (set of) fundamental assumption(s) on which the explanations for every physical phenomenon should depend. If any assumption in physics is ripe for re-thinking, I will suggest ‘actions at a distance through empty space’ as the first candidate.In our material world, all real entities are made of matter. The existence of matter is a solitary phenomenon without a prior cause. Therefore, the original assumption should be only with respect to the existence of matter. Further development of physics in all spheres should be based on this original assumption. To add to or modify original assumptions whenever certain phenomena are not readily explainable is an incorrect practice. The multitude of assumptions currently used in physics may be substituted by a single and basic assumption: ‘Substance is fundamental, and matter alone provides substance to all physical entities’. Although conclusions may diverge from current beliefs, reasoning based on this single fundamental assumption can logically explain all physical phenomena in nature.
Category: Classical Physics

Magnetic Ion Modulation (MIM) Theory: A Novel Approach to Controlling Ion Behavior via Magnetic Fields in Biological and Non-Biological Systems

Authors: Tristan Siokos
Comments: 19 Pages.

e Magnetic Ion Modulation (MIM) Theory presents a unified and groundbreaking mathematical framework for controlling and predicting ion behavior in both biological and non-biological systems using external magnetic fields. Central to the theory is the **Ion Modulation Constant** (Tn), a context-specific scaling factor that quantifies the number of ions modulated under specific conditions. This constant, although not universal, allows for accurate modelling of ion modulation in systems ranging from neuronal ion channels to plasma physics and quantum computing. The MIM equation incorporates ion properties such as magnetic moment and permeability, providing insights into neuromodulation for treating chronic pain and epilepsy, plasma confinement in fusion research, and stabilization of ion qubits in quantum computing. This paper includes detailed derivations of the Ion Modulation Constant, examples of its application to specific ions, and a comprehensive exploration of potential experimental validations.
Category: Mathematical Physics

A Simple Guide to Free-Fall Motion in General Relativity

Authors: A.J. Owen
Comments: 11 Pages.

The free-fall behaviour of a test object near a static point mass hasbeen calculated for two cases: the first is the usual black-hole solutionin general relativity resulting from using Schwarzschild coordinates,and the second is for a model described in previous papers, in whichspacetime is completely regular with no event horizon. The predictionsare presented and discussed.
Category: History and Philosophy of Physics

Black Holes in the Spacetime Superfluid Hypothesis: A Novel Approach to Singularities and Information Paradox

Authors: Eric Edward Albers
Comments: 16 Pages.

This paper presents a novel interpretation of black holes within theframework of the Spacetime Superfluid Hypothesis (SSH). We proposethat black holes can be understood as vortex-like structures in a su-perfluid spacetime, offering new perspectives on singularities, Hawkingradiation, and the information paradox. Our model provides a phys-ical basis for black hole phenomena without invoking spacetime sin-gularities, potentially offering new insights into longstanding puzzlesin black hole physics. We derive the fundamental equations governingblack hole vortices in superfluid spacetime, present predictions for ob-servational tests, and discuss the implications for our understandingof gravity and quantum mechanics in extreme condition
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Motivic Operators and M-Posit Transforms on Spinors

Authors: Parker Emerson
Comments: 34 Pages.

Spinor theory and its applications are indispensable in many areas of theoretical physics, especiallyin quantum mechanics, general relativity, and string theory. Spinors are complex objects thattransform under specific representations of the Lorentz or rotation groups, capturing the intrinsicspin properties of particles. Recent developments in mathematical abstraction have provided newinsights and tools for exploring spinor dynamics, particularly through the lens of motivic operatorsand M-Posit transforms.This paper delves into the intricate dynamics of spinors subjected to motivic operators and MPosit transforms. Motivic operators encapsulate intrinsic algebraic properties and perturbations,leading to highly evolved spinor states without reliance on external coordinate systems. The M-Posittransform, a novel operator designed for spinors, leverages fractal morphic properties, topologicalcongruence, and quantum-inspired perturbations to manipulate spinor structures within an infinitedimensional oneness geometry calculus.Drawing on the foundations laid by twistor theory, we aim to redefine the evolution of spinorsusing intrinsic properties derived from phenomenological velocity equations. By interpreting spinorsas self-propelled twistors, we offer new perspectives on spinor transformations and dynamics. Thisintrinsic approach not only simplifies the mathematical treatment but also enhances the physicaland geometric interpretation of spinor behaviors.The structure of this paper is organized as follows: We begin with the formal definition andcomputation of spinor components using motivic operators, highlighting the steps involved in theirtransformations. Following this, we introduce the M-Posit transform and explore its applicationto spinors, providing detailed mathematical formulations and examples. We also examine theimplications of these transformations in higher-dimensional twistor spaces and non-commutativestructures. Finally, we extend our analysis to practical applications in quantum computing, fractalimage processing, and quantum field theory.The potential of spinning theory redefined through motivic operators and M-posit transformsoffers promising avenues for further research in various domains of theoretical physics and mathematics. This paper sets a foundation for these explorations, emphasizing the importance of intrinsicproperties and algebraic dynamics in understanding complex spinor evolutions.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Relativistic Effects on a Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Authors: Soham Mehta, Preet Sharma
Comments: 6 Pages.

In this study, we have attempted to study the damped harmonic oscillator and apply relativistic effects to it. We have expressed the equations in a format which can might be of interest to the reader to attempt a solution for the various cases such as overdamped, critically damped and other possible cases. Since this is preliminary study so we have not attempted to working out a solution, but we have expressed a compact equation.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Algebraic Conception of the Five Common Notions of Euclid

Authors: Juan Elias Millas Vera
Comments: 1 Page.

Following Hilbert’s path to make algebraic the classical texts I express literal notions of Euclid in simple equations.
Category: Algebra

An Extension of the Mollifier

Authors: Bin Wang
Comments: 10 Pages.

We extend the convergence for mollifiers to that for differential forms of arbitrary degrees.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Indeterminism as a Consequence of Changing Quantities

Authors: Greg P. Proper
Comments: 2 Pages.

Quantum Theory is embodied by the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP) which states that there is a natural limitation in the measurement of certain paired quantities. Perhaps the most direct explanation for this limitation is that uncertainty is caused by changes in the quantities themselves as the Universe evolves. This short paper references a solution to Einstein`s field equations that forms the basis for a cosmology in which the base quantities of space, time and energy (mass) change monotonically in an opposing manner parameterized by the expansion ($a$).[1} Each instance of $a$ would therefore be defined by its own unique inertial frame. The author postulates just such a possibility and then utilizes the HUP relationship to determine if an identifiable number appears mathematically. In this case a relatively straight forward calculation produces a number within a few percentage points of the empirically derived $h$.
Category: Quantum Physics

Goedelian Encryption & Goldbach's Conjecture

Authors: Paris S. Miles-Brenden
Comments: 16 Pages.

The qualifications to a mathematical context, in a theorem of elimination, remain the orderable indexed assumptive of a sequence in N, and a count, among hyperbolic and geometric spaces in general, to which this reproves to the theoretical limitations of the Turing Model, that the precalculability of machine states is in one exceptional qualifier, prohibitionally entitled of an Axiom of Choice, to Leonard Cohen's work.
Category: Algebra

AutoPET III Challenge: PET/CT Semantic Segmentation

Authors: Reza Safdari, Mohammad Koohi-Moghaddam, Kyongtae Tyler Bae
Comments: 7 Pages.

In this study, we implemented a two-stage deep learning-based approach to segmentlesions in PET/CT images for the AutoPET III challenge. The first stage utilized aDynUNet model for coarse segmentation, identifying broad regions of interest. Thesecond stage refined this segmentation using an ensemble of SwinUNETR, SegResNet,and UNet models. Preprocessing involved resampling images to a common resolution andnormalization, while data augmentation techniques such as affine transformations andintensity adjustments were applied to enhance model generalization. The dataset was splitinto 80% training and 20% validation, excluding healthy cases. This method leveragesmulti-stage segmentation and model ensembling to achieve precise lesion segmentation,aiming to improve robustness and overall performance.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Skill in Backgammon: Cubeless vs Cubeful

Authors: Tilemachos Zoidis
Comments: 16 Pages. CC BY

Does the doubling cube make backgammon more skillful? And is the answer the same in both money and match play? This article presents GNUbg rollouts between unequally skilled players which show that use of the doubling cube does not favor the better player in either case.
Category: General Mathematics

Study on Combustion Properties of Diesel Engine Fueled with Diesel-Ethanol Blend Using Two Phase Combustion Model of GT-Suite

Authors: Ryong Song Han, Nam Su Kim, Yong Jae Min, Hui song So, Chol Jin Kim
Comments: 12 Pages.

Worldwide, there is a growing interest in the use of diesel-ethanol blends in compression ignition engines as a way to reduce vehicle emissions and use alternative fuels. The previous studies with the focus on the reduction of emission and the improvement of performance for compression ignition engine using ethanol shows that the combustion characteristics should not be missed. In this paper, the effect of ethanol content on combustion properties of diesel engine fueled with diesel-ethanol blends using two phase combustion model (combustion model of premixed -diffusion combustion) of the virtual engine simulation tool GT-SUITE was investigated. For the purpose of the study, the engine simulation tool was used to compare the Computed data with the benchmark data for the variation of ethanol content (0-40%) and to analyze the characteristics of auto-ignition, premixed combustion and diffusion combustion. The simulation results of combustion characteristics using diesel-ethanol blend showed that the auto-ignition delay increased and the premixed combustion ratio increased. The results of the study showed that the combustion model of premixed combustion -diffusion combustion can be used to perform combustion characteristics and performance analysis in a compression ignition engine using ethanol-diesel blend and to estimate the ethanol content to achieve the desired working performances.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

New Continued Fraction Approximations for the Gamma Function Based on the Tri-Gamma Function

Authors: SonUng Hong, Kwang Ri, CholRyong Kim
Comments: 10 Pages.

In this paper, we provide some useful lemmas to construct continued fraction based on a given power series. Then we establish new continued fraction approximations for the gamma function via the Tri-gamma function. Especially, we analytically determine all parameters of the continued fraction by Bernoulli numbers.
Category: Functions and Analysis

A Generalisation of Sommerfeld’s "On the Composition of Velocities in the Theory of Relativity"

Authors: Aswan Korula
Comments: 7 Pages.

The Michelson-Morley (MM) experiment and its resolution by the special theory of relativity form a foundational truth in modern physics. In this paper we examine and generalise the geometry of the sequence of events within a standard MM interferometer to arrive at a geometry that merges the perspectives of the rest and moving frames within a common stationary circle in space. Further we show that this theoretical approach leads us into spherical trigonometry that supplies a simple solution of the Michelson-Morley problem.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Control Method of the System Subject to Constraint on Power Spectral Density of Control Input

Authors: Ri Kyong Hyok, Kim Kwang Sok, Kim Ryong Pom
Comments: 25 Pages.

In this paper, we present a control method for the control plant subject to the constraint on the power spectral density of the control input. The constraint condition on the power spectral density is defined using the periodogram. This constraint is represented as a quadratic inequality on the combination of the control inputs of the adjacent several time steps. To constrain the power spectral density of the control input, the finite impulse response filter is connected to the input channel of control plant and the constrained model predictive controller is used. The filter is designed so that when it receives the amplitude-constrained signal its output signal satisfies the constraint on the power spectral density. The model predictive controller with the amplitude-constrained output controls the augmented plant which consists of the control plant and the filter. Numerical simulations verify the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

On the Bifurcation Structure of Particle Physics

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 17 Pages.

It is nearly universally accepted that the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics, despite its remarkable predictive power, remains an incomplete framework. Among the many long-standing puzzles confronting SM, its flavor composition, the origin of three generations, the spectrum of particle masses and charges, and the chirality of electroweak interactions continue to resist explanation. In line with our previous investigations, the goal of this exploratory work is to further bridge the gap between the universal behavior of nonlinear dynamics, on the one hand, and the flavor composition and SM chirality, on the other.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

On Relational Mechanics

Authors: Agustín A. Tobla
Comments: 6 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references on other's work)

In classical mechanics, a new reformulation is presented, which is totally in accordance with the general principle of relativity, which is invariant under transformations between inertial and non-inertial reference frames, which can be applied in any reference frame without introducing fictitious forces, which is observationally equivalent to Newtonian mechanics, and which establishes the existence of a new universal force of interaction, called kinetic force ( which is related to the force of inertia -ma , and also to Mach's principle )
Category: Classical Physics

A Conjecture Regarding the Primes and π

Authors: Shreyansh Jaiswal
Comments: 5 Pages.

In this article we introduce a new function:f (ϕ) We also conjecture that: f(π) = π We also rigorously show that 3.85 > f(π) > 3.1240.
Category: Number Theory

Geometrized Vacuum Physics Part 7: "Electron" and "Positron"

Authors: Mikhail Batanov-Gaukhman
Comments: 54 Pages.

This article is the seventh part of the scientific project under the general title "Geometrized Vacuum Physics Based on the Algebra of Signature " [1,2,3,4,5,6]. In this article, the metric-dynamic model of two simplest mutually opposite stable spherical vacuum formations is considered - "electron" and "positron". These stable vacuum formations are an integral part of the hierarchical cosmological model proposed in the previous article [6]. The methods of geometrized vacuum physics and the mathematical apparatus of the Algebra of Signature used in this article to study the metric-dynamic model of "electron" and "positron" are suitable for studying all other more complex stable vacuum formations of the same scale: "quarks", "nucleons", "mesons", "atoms" and "molecules", etc., as well as all stable vacuum formations of any scale, for example, "planets", "stars" and "galaxies". This article examines issues related to deformations and accelerated flows of various vacuum layers inside the "electron" and "positron". Paths for the development of geometrized vacuum electrostatics are outlined. Some aspects of the "electron"-"photon", "electron"-"positron" and "electron"-"electron" interactions are considered. The "еlectron" and "positron" are infinitely complex vacuum formations, but the algorithms and mathematical techniques of the Algebra of signature proposed in the article can allow permanently pushing back darkness into the abyss of the unknown, gradually transforming transcendence into immanence.
Category: Classical Physics

A Theory Towards How the Universe Really Works

Authors: Dino Bruniera
Comments: English, pages 1-39 and Italian, pages 40-79

In 1887 the Michelson-Morley experiment was performed, which was supposed to detect the motion of the Earth relative to the ether, i.e., the medium in which light would manifest itself, and therefore the only one relative to which its speed could be truly isotropic.But the experiment found that the speed of light is isotropic relative to the Earth too, and therefore did not detect any motion relative to the ether.In order to justify this negative result, Lorentz hypothesized that all objects that move in the ether undergo a slowing down of time and a length contraction in the direction of motion, thus making the speed of light appear isotropic, while in reality it is not.Instead, Einstein justified this result by arguing that light propagates in a vacuum and that its speed is isotropic in all reference frame, regardless of the motion between them, specifying however that this is a stipulation and, therefore, an apparent but not real phenomenon. But later he considered this isotropy as real. And this is how relativists still consider it, overbearingly, since they do not accept discussions on this statement.In truth, it is precisely thanks to the real slowing down of time and the real contraction of matter that the speed of light appears isotropic. And it is a very useful appearance, because considering it as real has allowed the development of the law of gravitation of General Relativity (which is also apparent) and, above all, to make the GPS system work. Which cannot work according to reality, because the precise speed of the Earth relative to the ether is not known and, therefore, not even the real speed of light relative to the Earth, which would be needed to make the GPS work according to reality.But, as I will demonstrate in this article, this appearance does not allow us to calculate the speeds and distances of celestial objects, too. So, using it anyway, relativists have obtained a complicated and incompatible with observation model of Universe, whose expansion is accelerating.So I developed a theory, which I called Space Quanta in Expansion, which considers the appearance useful for gravitation and GPS, but not for calculating distances and velocities of distant celestial objects, where it uses its own formulas. And so I obtained a model of Universe that is reasonable and compatible with observations and quantum mechanics, whose expansion results in deceleration.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Various Representative Values Representing Between the Two Figures, and How to Create These Representative Values

Authors: Sungmin Kang
Comments: 2 Pages. (Author name added to the article by viXra Admin as required; also, please cite and list scientific references)

There are countless means that are neither arithmetic nor geometric means, and to satisfy the mean, f(x,y) must be a one-to-one correspondence to a bivariate function f(x,x).
Category: General Mathematics

GRAPPLE: GraphSAGE Reinforced with Actor-Proximal Policy Optimization for Enhanced Personalized Recommendation Systems

Authors: Aryaman Sharma
Comments: 49 Pages.

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) and reinforcement learning techniques are combined in GRAPPLE (GraphSAGE Reinforced with Actor-Proximal Policy Optimization), a revolutionary framework for improving personalized recommendation systems. GRAPPLE allows for dynamic adaptation to changing user preferences and item dynamics by fusing Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) with GraphSAGE, a powerful representation learning technique. GRAPPLE can now efficiently extract extensive relational information from interaction graphs and capture complex user-item relationships. Adaptive learning techniques allow model to continuously update their recommendation criteria in response to user feedback, increase the precision of recommendations while maintaining the user satisfaction quota that it has. Experiments performed on real-world dataset demonstrate that our algorithm outperforms conventional recommendation methods, demonstrating its superiority in a range of recommendation scenarios as well as its durability and scalability. GRAPPLE represents a significant advancement in recommendation systems by combining GNNs with reinforcement learning methods. It provides a versatile and efficient way to manage interaction patterns and fluctuating user preferences in recommendation jobs.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

A New Binary Encoding Disk from Shen Nong's Diagrams in I-Ching and Its Application -- Also Uncovering the e, φ, Spiral Fractal, Fibonacci and TM Sequences in the Encoding Disk

Authors: Hua-Fang Wu
Comments: 24 Pages. In Chinese

The Shen Nong's Diagrams of I-Ching is a set of "the dichotomy approach" Diagrams of I-Ching discovered by the author in 1994, which has been published in Chinese core journals. The diagram contains the geometric sequence of 1, 2, 4, 8... Shen Nong's Diagrams of I-Ching actually represents a new binary coding scheme with a specific arrangement and combination of YIN and YANG symbols, in which, the circular diagram constitutes an encoding disk that can be used as a photoelectric code disk. In recent years, the author has discovered that the Fibonacci sequence, TM sequence, φ, e, Pascal's triangle (Yang Hui Triangle), the integer value of the fine structure constant 137, and the spiral fractal structure, which cross coexistence on the encoding disk. Even the spiral structure of the Milky Way is very similar to the spiral of the encoding disk. This provides us with a new perspective and entry point for studying these mathematical and scientific issues and even the internal connections among them, and it is expected to that the encoding disk will be basic tool, which, like Pascal's triangle, will be widely used in the field of mathematical and scientific research.
Category: General Mathematics

Political Map of Northeast India and the Graphical Law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 18 Pages.

We study the names of the places in the Political Map of Northeast India.We draw the natural logarithm of the number of names, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithm of the rank of the letter, normalised. We conclude that the Political Map of Northeast India can be characterised by the magnetisation curve, BW(c=0), of the Ising Model in the Bragg-Williams approximation in the absence of external magnetic field, H, with $c=frac{ H}{gamma epsilon}=0$.
Category: Social Science

Modeling Dark Matter Through the Effects of Relativistic Mass

Authors: John Hogarth
Comments: 4 Pages.

Dark matter remains a conundrum within the field of cosmology. While the behavior is wellunderstood, the underlying cause remains mysterious. Many models have been proposed to explain the phenomenon, whether it be new particles or modifications to the law of gravity. This document attempts to explain dark matter through the effect of relativistic mass and the effect of a relativistic gravitational field. The goal is that this model might be able to fit with observations of dark matter as well as Modified Newtonian Gravity (MOND) within galactic orbits.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Framework for Automated Low Latency Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting Using Crowdsourced Reporting and Graph Theory Analysis

Authors: Jyotirmay Kirtania
Comments: 19 Pages.

Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) are a leading cause of hospital admissions and healthcare costs. Traditional methods of ADR reporting often rely on post-marketing surveillance, and manual reporting of ADRs to the local or national pharmacovigilance agencies for causality assessment and final reporting to the WHO. High-income countries have their own national (i.e., USFDA) and regional (i.e., European Medicines Agency / EMA) pharmacovigilance agencies. However, this process is slow and inefficient. This article proposes a novel framework for integrating ADR detection into clinical workflows using Electronic Medical Record (EMR) systems, crowdsourced reporting from patients and healthcare professionals, and graph theory for generating automated ADR signals and reports to the local or national pharmacovigilance agencies. The system leverages automated data collection from EMRs (drug prescriptions, clinical notes) by EMR data scraping, integrating ADR dictionaries and drug databases to automate the generation of ranked ADR signals. By applying graph theory, the system filters and upranks connections between drugs and ADRs, considering the temporal relationship between drug administration and ADR occurrence. This automated approach offers a significant improvement in ADR reporting, enabling faster detection and more accurate predictions. Methodologies, framework visualizations and python code snippets are included to aid implementation.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Tired Light in the Spacetime Superfluid Hypothesis: A Novel Approach to Cosmological Redshift

Authors: Eric Edward Albers
Comments: 14 Pages.

This paper presents a novel interpretation of cosmological redshift within the framework of the Spacetime Superfluid Hypothesis (SSH). We revisit the concept of "tired light" in the context of a superfluid spacetime, proposing a mechanism for photon energy loss during propagation through the cosmic medium. Our model provides a physical basis for redshift without invoking universal expansion, potentially offering new insights into longstanding cosmological puzzles. We derive the fundamental equations governing light propagation in superfluid spacetime, present predictions for observational tests, and discuss the implications for our understanding of the cosmos.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Multi-Fold Dark Matter Effects & Rotation Curve Differences in Galaxies in Clusters, Yet Respect of the Strong Equivalence Principle

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 19 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/.

A recent paper suggests that MOND would better explain the difference in the distribution of rotation curves inside versus at the outer edges of galaxies. It would be due to the External Field Effect (EFE) encounter with MOND for galaxies in a uniform external field due to surrounding systems. ΛCDM, based on General Relativity (GR), respects the (strong) equivalence principle. Accordingly, for ΛCDM, such differences are not directly explainable. As the observed difference is argued to be statistically significant, something still to be confirmed, it could be a convincing argument in favor of MOND.The paper explains how the multi-fold dark matter effects explain qualitatively the observed differences: inner entanglement is more disrupted by the rest of the galaxy content, before creating a halo effect. With this we can argue that MOND is not necessarily the only answer to the observations. In previous papers, we argued that the multi-fold theory at large enough scale recovers GR, and that it is compatible with the equivalence principle. The paper therefore explains that these can be multi-fold gravity results. The multi-fold dark matter effects result from entangled real systems, which are extra contribution to gravity, which results only from virtual particles. There are therefore no inconsistencies: the equivalence principle can be respected while rotation differences may exist. To that effect, we show that while multi-fold gravity follows the (strong) equivalence principle, multi-fold dark matter effects can bring in an EFE effect without any contradiction.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Multiple of a 6th Power is a Sum of 2 Cubes

Authors: Oliver Couto
Comments: 3 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: An abstract is required; also please cite and list scientific references)

Multiple of a sixth power is a sum of two cubes.
Category: Number Theory

The Potential of AI to Simulate Real-Time Historical What-If Scenarios for Immersive Educational Experiences

Authors: Mezbah Uddin Rafi
Comments: 16 Pages.

This paper examines the innovative application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to simulate real-time historical what-if scenarios, exploring its potential for creating immersive and engaging educational experiences. AI-driven simulations could revolutionize the way history is taught, allowing users to engage directly with alternative historical outcomes. By exploring possible scenarios—such as different outcomes for major events like World War II or the Cuban Missile Crisis—students and educators can gain deeper insights into historical processes. This paper discusses the methodologies behind AI-driven historical simulations, the technical and ethical challenges involved, and the future potential of this technology.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

[derivation Of] Black Hole Entropy and Unruh Effect [from Quantum Wave Entropy]

Authors: Xiao Lin Li
Comments: 10 Pages.

In quantum mechanics, particles have a new type of probabilistic property, which is quantum wave probability. Corresponding to this new probability, the particle has the property of quantum wave entropy, and it has the property of quantum wave temperature. Based on the quantum wave entropy, the Unruh formula, the black hole entropy formula, and the Verlinde entropy gravitational formula can be easily derived. It proves that these three formulas are not independent of each other, but are related to each other. These three formulas have the same physical origin, which is quantum wave entropy. The quantum wave temperature has similar properties to the Unruh temperature. The quantum wave temperature is not only directly proportional to acceleration, but also inversely proportional to velocity. The Unruh temperature is just a light speed case of quantum wave temperatures. Compared to the Unruh temperature, the quantum wave temperature is significantly larger and easier to test experimentally. All experiments to test the Unruh effect can be used to test the theory of quantum wave entropy. We can use experiments to test whether the theory is true.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Standard Form Metric and Static Charged Sphere

Authors: Karl De Paepe
Comments: 4 Pages.

For a system of a static charged sphere we make gauge and coordinate transformations so that the electromagnetic vector potential has a unit time component and zero space components. Beginning with a spherically symmetric metric in standard form and electromagnetic vector potential having this special form we solve the Einstein field equations outside the sphere. We show the solution has charge outside the sphere.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Light Trajectories Near a Point Mass

Authors: A. J. Owen
Comments: 11 Pages.

Light trajectories near a static point mass have been calculated for two cases: the first is the usual black-hole solution in general relativitythat results from using Schwarzschild coordinates to determine the curvature of spacetime, and the second is for a model described in a previous paper, viXra:2409.0030, in which spacetime is completely regular with no event horizon.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Unification By Correction

Authors: Timothy Lester
Comments: 12 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references and avoid using author's name in title etc)

This article presents a unified framework for describing the fundamental forces of gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong nuclear force using a single set of equations. By refining Newton’s classical equations with a new constant L, derived from the gravitational constant G by incorporating the speed of light squared c^2, we derive new expressions for gravitational force and orbital velocity that are inherently scalable. These equations provide a natural link between gravitational, electromagnetic, and strong nuclear interactions. Furthermore, the fine-structure constant α, a fundamental constant in quantum electrodynamics and other known constants and relationships emerge naturally from these refined equations, suggesting a profound connection between these forces. This approach opens up new avenues for exploring unified field theories and may provide a foundation for further theoretical and experimental investigations.
Category: Classical Physics

Testing a Sound Postulate

Authors: Anival Barca
Comments: 11 Pages.

The Michelson-Morley (MM) experiment, foundational in challenging classical understandings of light propagation, played a crucial role in the development of special relativity. This paper re-examines this pivotal experiment from a new perspective, investigating the equivalence between optical and audio interferometry. By generalising the events within a MM interferometer, the study proposes a method to test if audio waves exhibit relativistic properties or not. This exploration of optical and acoustic analogy aims to deepen our understanding of wave mechanics and relativity, offering novel insights into relativistic experimental physics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Optimizing Procurement Efficiency: Neural Networks and Synthetic Data for Predicting Delivery Times

Authors: Oluwashola Aremu, Dan Taiye
Comments: 14 Pages.

This study explores the application of neural networks to predict product delivery times in procurement processes, utilizing a large synthetic dataset. As timely delivery is crucial for supply chain efficiency, accurate prediction of procurement timelines can significantly enhance operational planning and resource allocation. Our research employs a multi-layer neural network model trained on a synthetically generated dataset of 1 million entries. The dataset incorporates key procurement attributes including purchase value, complexity, procurement method, product type, number of potential suppliers, urgency, organizational size, team experience, budget availability, geographical location, season, and industry sector. By using synthetic data, we overcome common limitations in procurement research such as data scarcity and confidentiality issues, while still capturing the complex interrelationships between variables. The neural network model demonstrates promising results in predicting delivery times, outperforming traditional linear regression models. Our findings suggest that certain attributes, such as complexity, procurement method, geographical location and budget availability have a more significant impact on delivery time predictions. The study also highlights the potential of machine learning techniques in procurement analytics and decision support. While based on synthetic data, this research provides a foundation for future studies using real-world procurement data. It also offers insights into the key factors influencing procurement timelines and demonstrates the potential of neural networks in enhancing procurement efficiency.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Space-Time Torsion as a Manifestation of Magnetism, and the Constancy of the Speed of Light

Authors: Carlton Frederick
Comments: 4 Pages. (Abstract added by viXra Admin as required)

To show that the speed of light is constant in all reference frames, we need to, First, accept that space-time is granular and, second to entertain the postulate that a mass moving through spacetime affects the space-time. That torsion could be identified with magnetism was suggested by Kaare Borchenius. We will be following his suggestion.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Nature of Dark Matter as "Anti-Light": A Hypothesis of Massless Particles Moving Backward in Time

Authors: Nissim Yehuda Harpaz
Comments: 4 Pages.

This paper presents a speculative hypothesis that challenges the current understanding of dark matter. We propose that dark matter, instead of being composed of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) or other forms of matter, could be "anti-light"—massless particles that move backward in time. These particles either travel faster than light (tachyonic) or slower than zero speed, rendering them invisible to direct electromagnetic observation. However, their unique interaction with spacetime produces the gravitational effects attributed to dark matter. This theory is an attempt to reconcile the unseen yet influential nature of dark matter through the lens of relativistic and quantum concepts. While highly speculative, this proposal opens new lines of inquiry into the nature of time, mass, and energy.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Planck Length

Authors: Alexander P. Klimets
Comments: 9 Pages.

The paper reveals the essence of the Planck length and its relevance to quantum gravity.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Revisiting the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Why Photons Are Exempt from Quantum Uncertainty

Authors: Albert Saenz Coromina
Comments: 3 Pages. (Author name added to the article by viXra Admin as required)

In this article, we challenge the commonly accepted notion that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP) applies universally, including to photons (electromagnetic waves). While photons are fundamentally linked to Quantum Mechanics (QM) through the Planck-Einstein relation (E = h⋅u), we argue that certain core aspects of their behavior (specifically their speed, wavelength, frequency, and phase) are fully deterministic and not subject to uncertainty. Through detailed mathematicalexploration and comparison with traditional QM principles, we demonstrate that the HUP, although fundamental to particles with mass (fermions), does not meaningfully apply to massless bosons like photons. This insight paves the way for further exploration of deterministic principles for introducing a new Quantum Gravity Dynamics (QGD) conceptual alternative.
Category: Quantum Physics

Evidence of Simple Harmonic Motion in the Setting of Elementary Electric Charge: A Review of Historical Data and Implications for Future Research

Authors: Lamont Williams
Comments: 37 Pages.

In many early studies of the value of elementary electric charge (e), experimentalists identified what appeared to be substantial discrepancies among results. Some discrepancies were explained; some were not. This investigation provides evidence suggesting that some discrepancies among experimental findings for the value of e may have been the result of the electromagnetic field between interacting particles behaving somewhat like a spring undergoing simple harmonic motion. Here, the standard value of e is associated with the equilibrium position of the field and the other values are associated with displacement from that position. This would have led to higher values of e in some cases and lower values in others, consistent with the experimental findings. Implications for the spatiotemporal nature of electrons in materials, fine-structure constant, and Landau pole are discussed.
Category: Quantum Physics

Accelerating Generalization Through Open-Ended Distributed Modularity

Authors: Sofiane Delloue
Comments: 20 Pages. (Author name added to the article by viXra Admin as required)

We introduce Newcoin, a novel protocol designed to accelerate open-source AI advancement by enabling the pooling of learning instances across diverse pipelines. This approach has the potential to multiply epistemic affordances exponentially, fostering unprecedented growth in AI capabilities. Newcoin leverages cryptographically signed statements and a game-theoretical consensus mechanism, which aggregates weighted human feedback to evaluate and reward network contributions. The open interpretability of learning signals contributes to improved generalization capabilities through several mechanisms. This shared cognitive space, where learning signals from various domains and tasks are universally interpretable, allows AI systems to leverage collective knowledge to better generalize to new, unseen problems. By integrating robust security measures with an incentive structure that promotes high-quality outputs, Newcoin creates a self-improving ecosystem for AI development. This innovative framework not only accelerates open-source AI capabilities but also addresses critical concerns of alignment and safety, paving the way for responsible and rapid advancements in artificial intelligence.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

The Post-hegemonic World Order: The Case for [Lasting] Peace

Authors: Gennady Shkliarevsky
Comments: 49 Pages.

Tensions and rivalries are proliferating in the contemporary world at an unprecedented rate. There are many signs that human civilization faces a real possibility of a new global conflict. Some observers even claim that the Third World War has already began. There are few other times in human history when the need to bring order and peace to the troubled world has been more urgent than it is today. The creation of the new world order is the main subject of this article. The article examines four major perspectives on world order: Western, Chinese, Russia, and Islamic. The analysis shows that none of these perspectives offer a possibility to create an enduring global order. The creation of such order requires a solution of the problem of difference. This problem is a result of the clashes of differences that appear to be intrinsic to reality. The study shows that clashes among differences are not inevitable, and that the problem of differences is resolvable. The article outlines the approach that makes possible to solve the problem of difference and attain perpetual peace.
Category: Social Science

On Expressions for Gravitational Time Dilation

Authors: John Hogarth
Comments: 4 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Author name should be after the article title, the abbstract should be labeled as such, & please cite and list scientific references)

Schwarzschild’s gravitational time dilation expression is derived assuming a ~flat Minkowski spacetime. This time dilation effect is spherically symmetric, occurring in all radial directions for a gravitational source. A way to derive Schwarzschild’s expression is with a model that assumes a mass starting from rest at some distance from a gravitational field source (such as Earth). One can use Newtonian Kinetic Energy and Gravitational Potential Energy to create an energy balance. This is then used to derive escape velocity: the mass steadily starts moving through the gravitational potential field, gaining speed until it hits escape velocity upon reaching the gravitational field source. This document explores the derivation using escape velocity. Moreover, this document modifies the approach by using relativistic mass to derive a slightly different expression for gravitational time dilation. Finally, alternative interpretation of gravitational time dilation is also explored, using the concept of relativistic mass.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Positive Side of Electrons, Electric Current and Electromagnetism

Authors: David Lindsay Johnson
Comments: 27 Pages.

The electron represents one of the most exciting and important particles in atomic science. Electrons are very small and mobile fundamental (or elementary) particles that engage in orbitals around atomic nuclei, or can move as an electric current through a conductor, or can spectacularly jump en masse through dielectric material in the form of lightning or an electric arc. They are also important in atomic bonding and chemical reactions. Electric current is usually understood to be caused by the movement of electrons, but electric charge carriers aren't always electrons, and they aren't always negative. In animals (including humans), electric charge carriers are primarily sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions, which are all positively charged, and when a nerve passes an electric signal, it consists of positive charge movement. For semiconductors, electric current cannot be fully explained simply in terms of the movement of electrons (the negative charge carrier), and a positive charge carrier is required.With like-charges repelling and opposite-charges attracting, we treat negative electric charge as being distinctly different to positive electric charge, or at least that the electric fields associated with each type of charge to be different. This paper considers what electric charge and associated electric fields might consist of, and attempts to explain the reasons why the positive and negative fields of electric charges interact with each other as they do.In terms of like-pole repulsion and opposite pole attraction, magnetic fields are quite similar to electric fields, and are inter-related as implicit in the term ‘electromagnetic’. This paper looks at several models for the electron and its role in electric currents, and explores the nature of and differences between electric and magnetic fields with reference to the STEM electron model.
Category: Classical Physics

A Proposed Resolution to Dark Energy and Dark Matter: Replacing Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry Via Axiomatization of Torricelli's Homogeneous Infinitesimals

Authors: Jeffrey P. Baugher
Comments: 35 Pages.

The conundrum of Dark Matter coupled with the discovery in 1998 that the universe is paradoxically accelerating its expansion has led some cosmologists to question the correctness of the non-Euclidean geometric theory of gravity, General Relativity. In the 17th century, there was also a great paradox between two views for the geometric constituents of a line, heterogeneous (made of points) versus homogeneous (made of infinitesimal segments). Evangelista Torricelli, a protege of Galileo, elucidated his logical reasoning on why lines must be made of segments and not points and created one particular fundamental example among many. In this paper, I produce unknown corollaries to Torricelli's argument allowing me to falsify the relationship between infinitesimals and the Archimedean axiom, resolve L'Hopital's paradox, rewrite the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and derive Gaussian curvature. I hypothesize that the intractability of Dark Energy and Dark Matter is due to the points of coordinate systems within General Relativity actually being a logically flawed heterogeneous interpretation with basis vectors as a stand-in for the properties of homogeneous infinitesimals. I propose a novel but geometrically logical model for gravity based on the changing area of ``surfaces" that suffers from no Cosmological Constant but can model red-shift of light. I present hypothetical arguments to demonstrate that there is sufficient compelling similarities to support the investigation of rewriting Euclidean/non-Euclidean geometry, the Calculus and all the laws of physics with axiomatic homogeneous infinitesimals of three components that each follow the theory of proportionality. They are relative cardinality, homogeneous infinitesimal and lastly their sum.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Autopet3 Challenge [ii]: When do We Need Models that Generalize and a Mixture of Experts Who Specialize?

Authors: Maxim Shatskiy
Comments: 4 Pages.

This document describes solution to AutoPET3 Challenge. We show how an ensemble of Unet++ models with EfficientNet-B7 back-bones trained separately on FDG and PSMA data can perform well in this competition. Can a single model beat two specialized models? We see what results of this competition will bring.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Mathematica Analysis of an RCHO Standard Model

Authors: J. G. Moxness
Comments: 17 Pages.

This "paper with code" is a Mathematica analysis of recent work by Furey on identifying connections between the Standard Model (SM), group theory, particle physics, and the hypercomplex number systems of RCHO. It is a brief overview with results of the analysis followed up with an ancillary notebook showing the full detail of the computations that validate the operation of the logical constructs behind the ideas. It uses a comprehensive symbolic computational environment purpose-built over several decades to study and visualize hypercomplex number systems, representational group theory, and the associated experimental and theoretical physics concepts that use them.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Analytical Exploration and Extension of the Function

Authors: Lynette E. M. Z. Winslow
Comments: 6 Pages.

This paper investigates the function ( f(x) = int_{-infty}^{+infty} e^{(-x)^{|u|}} , du ), focusing on its analytical expression and extension over the real number domain. We employ techniques analogous to the analytic continuation of the Gamma function to extend ( f(x) ) beyond its initial domain, addressing convergence issues and exploring its properties across the entire real line.
Category: General Mathematics

Mechanism of Earth Plate Motion (Driving Force of Continental Drift)

Authors: Hyukee Ahn
Comments: 13 Pages.

I suggest a mechanism for the force that moves continents. This force is ‘ridge push by Plate Tide lever working’. This force, which moves the plates of the Earth, This is the same force that splits Supercontinents, spreaing seafloor, and forms giant mountain ranges.The source of this force is the Earth plate tide by Moon and Sun. Earth plate fatigue failure by continuous tidal force. The cause of Continental drifting and Sea floor spreading is Earth plate tide and ridge push lever effect work.
Category: Geophysics

Training Classifier Gradient Penalty GAN with Codebook Architecture

Authors: Jeongik Cho
Comments: 10 Pages.

Classifier gradient penalty GAN is a GAN proposed to perform self-supervised class-conditional data generation and clustering on unlabeled datasets. The classifier gradient penalty GAN's generator takes a continuous latent vector and a categorical latent vector as input and generates a class-conditional data point corresponding to the categorical latent vector. In this paper, we propose to leverage the codebook architecture to improve the performance of classifier gradient penalty GAN. In the proposed architecture, the generator takes the page vector of the codebook corresponding to the index of the categorical latent vector, instead of taking the one-hot categorical latent vector directly. Unlike the codebook used in generative models with vector quantization, the codebook of the proposed architecture is not embedded with the encoder. Instead, the codebook is simply trainable and updated via generator loss like trainable parameters in the generator. The proposed architecture improved the quality of the generated data, class-conditional data generation performance, and clustering performance of the classifier gradient penalty GAN.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Origin of Energy Density

Authors: Deokjin Kim
Comments: 3 Pages.

Quantum hole is a hole that quantizes 4D space, and the author has continuously proposed it from previous studies. Quantum hole of 4D has the characteristics of black hole of 3D, but the difference is that quantum hole is anti-matter, and it is 2π times heavier than matter. From this, it was calculated that dark matter is a quantum hole. From the mass densities of 4D quantum hole and 3D black hole, the relationship of physics between cosmological constant, Hubble constant, and dark energy ratio was derived. If this derivation is correct, new physics will be born.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Population Increase and Control

Authors: Bertrand Wong
Comments: 22 Pages.

People are apparently reluctant to have children or more children due to job and financial insecurity, and other reasons, e.g., desire for independence and freedom, women wanting to focus on their jobs and career development instead of giving birth and becoming housewives, etc. Declining birth-rates are apparently now a concern to many countries, e.g., China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, etc., for the young are needed to replace an aging work-force. This paper takes an analytical look at the declining birth-rates and increasing the birth-rate and population, and offers some suggestions for a solution to this complex problem. Many of the scenarios presented in the paper are derived from the author’s work experience in government dealing with labor matters and in the industrial sector dealing with automation and workers. The ideas in the paper should appeal to theorists, practitioners and social activists.
Category: Economics and Finance

Formulas for SU(3) Matrix Generators

Authors: Richard Shurtleff
Comments: 14 page article plus 17 page computer program, 1 figure

The Lie algebra of a Lie group is a set of commutation relations, equations satisfied by the group's generators. For SU(2) and many other Lie groups, the equations have been solved and matrix generators are realized as algebraic expressions suitable for further investigation or numerical evaluation. This article presents formulas that give a set of matrix generators for any irreducible representation of the group SU(3), the group of unimodular unitary three-dimensional complex matrices with matrix multiplication. A computer program to calculate the matrix generators is included.
Category: Mathematical Physics

The Reconstruction of Matter: A 2D Photon-Based Theory of Everything

Authors: Hyunho Shin
Comments: 31 Pages.

This paper proposes a new Theory of Everything (TOE) based on two-dimensional photons. The theory assumes that 2D photons exist as a medium throughout the universe, aiming to explain all matter and physical phenomena through this concept. Protons and electrons are formed as 2D photons fold into 3D structures, while dark matter, black holes, and space outside the universe are explained as photons transformed into a 1D state. The paper also points out limitations in existing quantum mechanical interpretations and presents a new perspective on the fixed form of matter. It suggests methods to experimentally verify the role of photons as a medium and offers a new viewpoint on the creation of the universe. This research attempts to explain the essence of matter and the universe through a simple and intuitive approach rather than complex mathematical structures, seeking to overcome the limitations of existing physics theories.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

On Quantum Tangential Spacetime as a Finite Hilbert-Space

Authors: Holger Döring
Comments: 5 Pages.

Nature knows no zero. On a fundamental level there is a minimal length. If there has to be a sort of quantum-spacetime it can not include fourvectors but must be described in tensor-form from first principles. Every coordinate, even in tangential spacetime without gravity-force has constant components in other dimensional directions, which can‘t be set to zero but must be defined over Planck-lenghts. In this case tangential spacetime has to be rewritten in a corrected form. This rewriting will be done. Maybe, from this calculation there can later derived a consistent version of quantum gravity, which leads to finite physical states in this theory. In , there is ergo constructed a Frobenius-scalarproduct of matrices and therefore a finite Hilbert-space. A Hilbert space is a real or complex vector space with a dot product, which is complete with respect to the norm induced by the dot product, i.e. in which every Cauchy sequence converges. A Hilbert space is therefore a complete pre-Hilbert space. Therefore the matrix space K (m × n) of the real or complex matrices with the Frobenius -scalar product is a Hilbertspace.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

How to Know All Prime Numbers and All Numbers Divisible with a Prime Number Only: Seven

Authors: Filiberto Marra
Comments: 17 Pages.

This study on prime numbers presents a method that allows us to know divisible numbers without performing complex calculation system using examination of composition of numbers. Example 143=11x13, 493=17x29. I can know all prime numbers with this examination of composed number.
Category: Number Theory

Autopet3 Challenge: When do We Need Models that Generalize and a Mixture of Experts Who Specialize?

Authors: Maxim Shatskiy
Comments: 4 Pages.

This document describes solution to AutoPET3 Challenge. We show how an ensemble of Unet++ models with EfficientNet-B7 backbones trained separately on FDG and PSMA data can perform well in this competition. Can a single model beat two specialized models? We see what results of this competition will bring.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Final New Circular Periodic Table of Elements and Integrated Periodic Table of Elements

Authors: Gang Chen, Tianman Chen, Tianyi Chen
Comments: 27 Pages. 9 Figures, in Chinese.

This paper provides some supplements and revisions to our previous paper titled "New Circular Periodic Table of Elements and Natural Group Theory" (viXra:2401.0001). A subtle revision of circular periodic table of elements is to make 5f small circle (sub-period) not contact to 7sp big circle (main period)，and hence indicates that the 89th element Ac* belongs to 6d elements and the 90th element Th* is the beginning of 5f elements. With this revision, we illustrate the relationships between the stable numbers in nuclides and 2π or π elements, highlight the characteristic numbers of 141, 157 and 173 in f periods and present some proofs in terms of chemical properties for the 70th element Lu to be the end of 4f elements and for the 90th element Th* to be the beginning of 5f elements. We also illustrate the relationships between the characteristic number 112/137/168 and 141/157/173. By the way, we suggest suitable Chinese names for the 117th and 118th element Ts* and Og*.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

A Discussion Related to the Energy Relativity and Its Implications

Authors: Moshe Segal
Comments: 6 Pages.

A corner stone of Physics is the Energy Conservation principle which states that the Energy is always conserved and that the Energy, embedded in the Universe, cannot disappear or be created from nothing. This should imply that the Total amount of the Energy, which is embedded in the whole Universe, must be a constant value. This, might also imply, as will be elaborated in the paper, that the measured amount of an Energy should not be relative to a specific spectator, which performs the measurement of this amount of this Energy, and all spectators, measuring the Total Energy Content of several specific Energy components, in the Universe, must conclude, that these specific Energy components, contain the same Total amount of Energy, as each of the spectators measured. However, this paper provides significant arguments that the Energy might be also relative to the spectator, and two separate spectators, measuring the Total Energy Content of several specific Energy components, in the Universe, might arrive at different results, relating to this Total Energy Content, of these several specific Energy components, which they measured. The paper also elaborates on the Implications of the conclusion that the Energy might be also relative.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Theoretical Structures as Networks from the Perspective of Automated Creation and Proving of Theorems

Authors: Taha Sochi
Comments: 8 Pages.

We envisage theoretical structures (especially in pure mathematics and theoretical physics) as networks made of elementary propositions (representing nodes) interconnected through deductive relationships (representing throats). This vision can be exploited as a basis for employing traditional network modeling techniques in the automated search for new theorems as well as for automated proving of proposed theorems and conjectures. This deductive, deterministic and intuitive approach can replace some of the conventional approaches (which are generally more sophisticated and elaborate and hence they are more expensive) in certain areas of automated and assisted theorem proving in addition to its benefit in the automated search for novel theorems. However, we admit that it has a number of limitations and shortcomings although this similarly applies to other methods in this field; moreover some of these limitations and shortcomings can be overcome by the reformulation of certain theoretical structures where we rely for the viability of this reformulation on our perception of theoretical structures as elaborate high-level linguistic systems.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Graph Isomorphism in Polynomial time

Authors: Christos I. Karatzas
Comments: 16 Pages.

We show that the Graph Isomorphism (GI) problem can be solved in polynomialO(n3 + n2 m log(n + m) + m2 n log(n + m) + m3 log(n + m)) time, on simple con-nected graphs with n vertices and m edges. As fundamental part of the proof,we introduce a novel method, named Symmetry Classication, which computesa canonical automorphism partition of a simple connected graph in polynomialO(n2 + nm log n) time. The master algorithm reduces to bipartite graph iso-morphism by transforming the input graph, if not bipartite, to its subdivisiongraph and computes the canonical form of the latter; or of the former if alreadybipartite. Canonical form is obtained by repeating the sequence of rst applyingSymmetry Classication method, then canonically selecting a vertex for indi-vidualization, and last applying the classical 1-dimensional Weisfeiler-Lehmanalgorithm, until a canonical discrete coloring is attained. Since both bipartiteand connected graph isomorphism are isomorphism complete we conclude thatGI lies in P.
Category: Combinatorics and Graph Theory

Relativity Predicts a Variable G

Authors: Frederic Lassiaille
Comments: 45 Pages.

It is shown that relativity predicts a variable G. The proof starts by considering a dimensionless particle in an empty universe. Then two particles, three particles, and an infinite set of particles are studied. This allows to calculate space-time structure for any realistic energy distribution. The proof uses the interchange of limits theorem, and ad hoc sequences of energy distributions. With only one particle, the result is a singularity everywhere if the universe is empty outside of the particle. Those singularities disappear completely with three particles. Then this calculation is done for any realistic energy distribution. An equation of G is given naturally in the process. This equation is a correct approximation in most of the realistic energy distributions. The fundamental principles building Einstein equation are still valid. But it is shown that the G anthropocentric solar system constant must be replaced by a variable value, which is weaker in strong matter density environments, and greater in low matter density environments. It means that the surrounding effect arises, it was introduced by previous works. And this effect was shown to solve the gravitational mysteries of today in astrophysics and in cosmology. Under a unifying relevant assumption, a solution is also given to the Yang-Mills Millennium problem.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Energy Quantum, Light Wave, and de Broglie Wave

Authors: Ichiro Nakayama
Comments: 10 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: For the last time, an abstract is required and please cite and list scientific references)

The energy quantum proposed by Planck is the basis of today's quantum mechanics. De Broglie also linked this energy quantum to the energy of matter and showed that matter is a wave.In the energy body theory, I linked the energy quantum to the kinetic energy of an electron and discovered that kinetic energy is a photon. 1) The radiation interval of photons which are plane waves becomes the wavelength of light emission line spectrum, 2) When electrons and protons interact, distortion (negative energy) occurs in the foot of each rotating wave, which works a restoring force, 3) It also generates a wave (positive energy) in the corresponding space, 4) The electron (or proton) moves while being dragged by this kinetic energy, and 5) The Schrödinger equation defines the wave that combines the distortion of the foot of the electron and the wave generated in space.It is also estimated that when an electron is on the orbit of an excited proton, the wavelengths of the de Broglie waves of the electron and the proton are the same length. Then, by dividing the distance at the speed of light (3 × 10 to the power of 8) by the wavelength, and multiplying the frequency by the Planck constant, we obtain the energy quantum. It has become clear that this relationship appears as the similarity of a triangle created by the distortion of the foot of a proton. E=hν
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Dictionary of American Family Names by Elsdon C. Smith and the Graphical Law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 19 Pages.

We study Dictionary of American Family Names by Elsdon C. Smith. We draw the natural logarithm of the number of entries, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithm of the rank of the letter, normalised. We conclude that the Dictionary can be characterised by BP(4,$beta H=0.01$) i.e. a magnetisation curve for the Bethe-Peierls approximation of the Ising model with four nearest neighbours in the presence of external magnetic field, H, with $beta H=0.01$. $beta$ is $frac{1}{k_{B}T}$ where, T is temperature and $k_{B}$ is the tiny Boltzmann constant.
Category: Social Science

Gaussian Integral

Authors: Edgar Valdebenito
Comments: 4 Pages.

The Gaussian integral is defined as the integral of the function exp(-x^2) over the entire real line. Mathematically, it is expressed as:integral from -infinity to infinity(exp(-x^2))dx=sqrt(pi). In this note we give some formulas related to the Gaussian integral.
Category: Number Theory

Variational Autoencoder Without Kullback—Leibler Divergence (Bsvarautonet)

Authors: Sing Kuang Tan
Comments: 10 Pages.

In this paper, I am going to propose a new Boolean Structured Variational Autoencoder Deep Learning Network (BSvarautonet) built on top of BSautonet, based on the concept of monotone multi-layer Boolean algebra. Kullback—Leibler (KL) divergence used in traditional Variation Autoencoder has convergence problem and numerical instabilities. Due to the Boolean Structured design of BSautonet, the bottleneck latent space embeddings is naturally distributed in multi-variables Gaussian distribution. By applying a whitening normalization on the latent space, it will transform the latent space to unit Gaussian distribution. Through analysis of the datapoints in latent space and generated MNIST digit images, it has shown that it has all the properties of variational autoencoder. The BS autoencoder is a masked noise denoising model, therefore it can acts like a diffusion model to incrementally generate a digit image from a noisy one through repeated applications of the autoencoder model.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Review of Emergent Spacetime and Matter Unified Field Theory (in Russian)

Authors: Andrey Smirnov
Comments: 35 Pages.

An axiomatic deterministic theory of physics based on a unified field is proposed.In the model of the theory, time is absent and dynamics are absent at the fundamental level. It is shown how space-time with matter and fields arise in such a model. It is shown that the anthropic principle arises as a consequence of the theory. The principle of causality is derived. Mass, energy and other concepts of mechanics are obtained. The Schrödinger equation is derived. Lorentz transformations and the special theory of relativity are obtained without using the postulates of STR. It is shown that the speed of light and the maximum speed of interactions are exactly equal. The special theory of relativity with all its equations is obtained. It is shown that the standard model does not contradict the proposed theory. The nature of gravity is considered. The principle of equivalence of gravity and acceleration is proved, all the assumptions on which the general theory of relativity is based are proven. Based on this, it can be argued that the equations of the general theory of relativity satisfy the theory of emergent space-time-matter. It is shown that gravity cannot have quanta. Thus, this theory states that no theory of quantum gravity can exist. An explanation of the origin of the Universe is proposed. An explanation of the nature of dark energy and dark matter is proposed. The physical foundations of mathematics are considered.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

An Example of Tan(π/2) = 0 from Seiyo Sampo

Authors: Saburou Saitoh, Hiroshi Okumura
Comments: 2 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Further repetition may not be accepted)

We show a very simple and pleasant example tan(π/2) = 0 from Seiyo Sampo.
Category: General Mathematics

Relationships of the Fine-Structure Constant to 2π and e

Authors: Gang Chen, Tianman Chen, Tianyi Chen
Comments: 12 Pages. 1 Figure, in Chinese.

This paper is a brief review of our previous papers concerning 2π-e formula, formulas of the fine-structure constant, formulas of the speed of light in atomic units and formulas of the anomalous magnetic moments of electron, muron and tauon. In this paper, these formulas are mainly elucidated from points of view of their relationships with 2π and e so as to answer the physicist Feynman’s question whether the fine-structure constant was related to π and e. In addition, we also give some new formulas of the fine structure constant and the speed of light in atomic units, especially a formula of a half of the speed of light in atomic units incorporating three factors of 141, 173 and 157, which are related to values of square root of 2, square root of 3 and π/2 in atomic units respectively.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

The Quark Theory of the Electron and the Vacuum

Authors: Rami Rom
Comments: 14 Pages.

Paul Dirac introduced the Quantum Theory of the Electron in 1928 that led him to the discovery of antimatter in general and in particular to the discovery of the electron antiparticle, the positron. We propose a new quark theory of the electron and the vacuum. We propose that the electron is a non-elementary non-point like particle comprised of two quarks and two antiquarks and having a tetrahedron structure. We further assume that electrons perform rapid quark flavor exchange reactions with pion tetraquark tetrahedrons comprised of the valence quarks and antiquarks, u ,d ,u ̃ ,d ̃ that form the vacuum pion tetrahedron fabric. Motion of the electron tetraquark tetrahedron on the vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedron fabric is performed by quark flavor exchange reactions of u and d quarks via gluons by tunneling through a double well potential between the electron tetrahedron and the vacuum pion tetrahedrons that transform the electron tetraquark tetrahedron to a pion tetraquark tetrahedron and vice versa. We assume that the quark flavor exchanges occur with Dirac’s equation extremely high zitterbewegung frequency and hence a single electron cannot be isolated since it forms a delocalized electron cloud with the vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedrons fabric. Extremely high precision measurements of the electron mass at the earth’s trajectory perihelion and aphelion may prove the quark theory of the electron and the vacuum, the existence of the vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedron fabric and its density dependence on gravity.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Hindu Law in Greater India

Authors: Sunil Sondhi
Comments: 20 Pages. This Research is funded by Indira Gandhi National Center for Arts, Minstry of Cullture, Govt. of India

The idea that justice and good conscience must prevail over law reflects the notion of superiority of higher moral law over the limitations of man-made law. In India this is rooted in the fundamental Vedic principle that there is connection between the form and the formless, mundane and the divine, the means and the ends. As the Rig Veda says, amidst the undifferentiated source, great warmth of creation was born; and the sages who searched in the far reaches of their mind discovered the umbilical connection of manifest with the unmanifest. This holistic, creative and contextual view of Dharma and Dharmasastra is also evident in the countries which were influenced by the Indian Dharmasastra tradition. In Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, the Dharmasastra tradition was accepted largely in its original form, although as the Kutara Manava Dharmasastra of Java shows, some modifications were made. In Tibet, Burma, Thailand, and Ceylon, the indigenous texts were an attempt to use the Indian tradition as a model in an environment entirely given over to the Buddhist faith. They retained the textual classification of contentious matters into Vyavaharapada or eighteen types; but the content of the texts was very much a matter of local rules. Thus, the Dharmasastra were not transplanted in other countries by the force of arms; rather, these were accepted as a guide to form and sustain indigenous traditions of ethics and law. On the basis of the considerable evidence from ephigraphical, and textual sources, it is possible to suggest that by the time Indian-inspired temples, statues and epigraphy appeared in Southeast Asia, sometime between the third and the fifth century CE, the relationship between Southeast Asian and Indian societies had probably already come a very long way through mutual interaction and awareness of the universal nature of India’s knowledge tradition. We need to go beyond the imagined vision of a sudden imposition of Indian culture, and Indianisation or Colonisation of South and Southeast Asia by warriors and sages. In a way, this paper raises the question as to whether Greater India was culturally Indianised through dissemination of India’s knowledge tradition before social and political ‘Indianisation?’
Category: Social Science

Para Complexes Numbers

Authors: Ahcene Ait saadi
Comments: 9 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: For the last time, please cite and list scientific references!)

In this article, I study the numbers that I have titled: para-complex numbers. A para- complex number consists of a real part and para- imaginary part. Algebraic form of a para- complex number:z=a+jb with j^2=1 and j different from 1 "J : is a pure para-imaginary."a, is the real part; b, is the imaginary part. In an orthonormal coordinate system, the x-axis represents the real numbers, while the y-axis represents the para-imaginary number. This work allows me to find a large number of mathematical formulas. This is just the beginning; I hope that researchers will improve it and derive more interesting mathematical formulas that will serve science.
Category: Algebra

A New Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics With a Conceptual Conjecture for ‘quantum Gravity'

Authors: Sonali Tamhankar
Comments: 15 Pages.

This work makes three contributions. First, we propose a NEW Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. Second, we make a conceptual NEW Conjecture for gravitational interactions of quantum particles, that can serve as a seed for a new line of mathematical investigations into Quantum Gravity. Third, we explore experimentaltests of the NEW Conjecture and the NEW Interpretation.
Category: Quantum Physics

A Model and Genomic Evidence of Imprinting DNA Sequence on Water Structure

Authors: Ivan V. Savelev, Michael M. Rempel, Alexandr V. Vikhorev, Oksana O. Polesskaya, Alexandr V. Vetcher, Richard Alan Miller, Max V. Myakishev-Rempel
Comments: 36 Pages.

A novel model is presented of DNA-water interactions within the cell nucleus, proposing a mechanism for continuous self-reorganization of water structures around DNA. The model suggests that DNA sequences may imprint information onto water through shifting layered structures, facilitating sequence-specific chromatin folding. A key feature of this model is the homologous sequence-specific adhesion of repetitive DNA elements, particularly transposons. In this process, two identical double-helical DNA sequences stick to each other in head to head orientation via transverse water layers, without unwinding or separating their strands. This adhesion is proposed to drive perpetual, dynamic chromatin refolding by pairing identical transposons to form large DNA loops and helices to form 30nm fibers and higher-order chromatin structures. The model postulates the existence of a chromatin code based on the positions of transposons in introns and intergenic sequences, offering a new perspective on the functional significance of these often overlooked genomic regions. Predictions based on this structural model were tested using genome sequence data, revealing specific patterns in purine sequence distribution and nucleotide homology that provide preliminary support for the model. This framework suggests novel functions for repetitive DNA sequences and proposes that sequence-specific chromatin refolding may serve as a mechanism for cellular sequence-guided information processing and self-regulation. While largely theoretical, the model generates testable predictions and suggests new directions for research. Several experimental approaches to validate the model are proposed, emphasizing the importance of in vivo studies or experiments closely mimicking nucleoplasm conditions. This work may have significant implications for understanding gene regulation, developmental biology and physiology, with potential applications in fields such as regenerative medicine and cancer research.
Category: Physics of Biology

The Perseverance Theory of Energy: an Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Gravity

Authors: Fatih Hodzic
Comments: 3 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

According to the perseverance theory of energy, physical empty space (vacuum) is a field of low probability density of energy, and quantum gravity is perseverance of energy of low probability density in the field of a quantum particle, graviton. Energy quanta (dark energy) and quantum particles (dark matter, galactic matter) are forms of energy of high probable energy. For energy, emanation in singularity, it is true that it is of immeasurably huge density. The perseverance of energy of different probable densities is a permanent effort, an aspiration towards an immensely huge density, to the state of energy that preceded the Big Bang.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

On the Time Complexity of Problem and Solution Spaces

Authors: Theophilus Agama
Comments: 6 Pages. This paper introduces the notion of time complexity.

We continue with the development of the theory of problems and their solutions spaces cite{agama2023topology} and cite{agama2022theory}. We introduce and study the notion of verification and resolution time complexity of solutions and problem spaces.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

The Proof of the Riemann Conjecture

Authors: Liao Teng
Comments: 34 Pages.

In order to strictly prove the hypothesis and conjectures in Riemann's 1859 paper on the Number of Prime Numbers Not greater than x from a pure mathematical point of view, and in order to strictly prove the Generalized hypothesis and the Generalized conjectures, this paper uses Euler's formula to study the relationship between symmetric and conjugated zeros of Riemann's ζ(s) function and Riemann's ξ(s) function, and proves that Riemann's hypothesis and Riemann's conjecture are completely correct.
Category: Number Theory

Gödelian Index Theorem for Chaotic Systems (Part 3): Extending Atiyah-Singer with Gödelian Ricci Flow and Application to Hyperion's Chaotic Orbit

Authors: Paul Chun-Kit Lee
Comments: 62 Pages.

This paper introduces the Gödelian-Logical Flow (GLF) framework, which bridges Gödel’s incompleteness theorems with classical chaos theory. The framework defines two key functions for chaotic systems: the truth function (Phi) and the provability function (P), inspired by formal logic. These functions are used to define the Gödelian Unpredictability Index (GUI), which quantifies logical unpredictability. Additionally, we introduce a modified Ricci flow—termed Gödelian Ricci Flow—which governs the evolution of both the geometric structure of a system and its logical attributes.We apply the GLF framework to four classical chaotic systems: the Lorenz system, double pendulum, fluid dynamics, and Hyperion’s chaotic rotation. For each system, we derive specific formulations for the truth (Phi) and provability (P) functions, relating them to physical quantities such as kinetic energy and angular momentum. The GUI is computed for these systems, offering complementary information to established chaos measures, such as Lyapunov exponents. Our results suggest that the GUI identifies regions of high logical complexity in phase space, providing insights into chaotic dynamics from a logical perspective.In the case of Hyperion’s chaotic rotation, we demonstrate how the GUI correlates with the moon’s kinetic energy and angular velocity, highlighting regions where logical unpredictability is most pronounced. This novel approach provides a fresh lens to analyze chaotic systems by integrating formal logic with classical dynamical measures.Though primarily theoretical, the GLF framework opens the possibility of exploring how logical complexity interacts with chaotic dynamics, extending beyond traditional geometric or physical analysis. By incorporating logical structures into the study of chaotic systems, this framework offers potential avenues for future research into the relationship between logic, geometry, and unpredictability in complex systems.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Analysis of Galactic Rotation Curves using Godelian Logical Flow Models and Massless Topological Effect Models

Authors: Paul Chun-Kit Lee
Comments: 16 Pages.

This paper presents an analysis of galactic rotation curves using novel models, including the Godelian Logical Flow (GLF) framework and Richard Lieu's massless topological defect models. The study utilizes data from the HI Nearby Galaxy Survey (THINGS) to test these models' ability to describe the observed rotation curves without invoking dark matter. The GLF framework, which incorporates concepts from Gödel's incompleteness theorems, offers an alternative explanation for galactic dynamics by suggesting that the logical structure of spacetime influences these phenomena. Lieu's model, on the other hand, proposes that massless topological defects in the form of concentric spherical shells can account for the flat rotation curves typically attributed to dark matter.We demonstrate that the Lieu Multi-Shell model and the GLF3 Exponential model consistently outperform the standard dark matter model across a sample of galaxies. The results indicate statistically significant differences in model performance, with the alternative models providing incremental improvements that capture important aspects of galactic dynamics.This study highlights the potential of these alternative models to provide new insights into the nature of galactic rotation curves and challenges the traditional dark matter paradigm. The findings encourage further theoretical development and observational validation of these models, with implications for our understanding of cosmic structure formation and dynamics.
Category: Astrophysics

Potential and Entropy Defined By Caratheodory Axiomatization, Relative Rate of Change of Energy and Critical States of System

Authors: Xianzhao Zhong
Comments: 19 Pages.

At the beginning of this paper, by the generalized wave equation ofelectric field and the solution of equation. We apply Caratheodory’saxiomatization to define potential function and entropy function ofcharged particles of the system. After introducing the relative rate ofchange of energy, their corresponding entropy function are defined bythe potential energy and the quantum energy.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Power-spectral Numbers

Authors: Walter A. Kehowski
Comments: 61 Pages.

Given $n=p_1^{e_1}cdots p_k^{e_k}$, there is a canonical isomorphism $mathbb{Z}_ncongmathbb{Z}_{p_1^{e_1}} oplus cdots oplus mathbb{Z}_{p_k^{e_k}}$. The spectral basis of $mathbb{Z}_n$ is an explicit realization of this isomorphism within $mathbb{Z}_n$ itself. This paper is a study of those numbers whose spectral basis consists of primes and powers. For example, if $M_p$ is a Mersenne prime with exponent $p$, then $2M_p$ has spectral basis ${M_p,2^{p}}$, while $2^pM_p$ has spectral basis ${M_p^2,2^{p}}$. Isospectral and isotropic numbers are introduced and many other numbers with interesting spectral bases are presented.
Category: Number Theory

Newton's Law of Gravitation, GR, SR and the Correspondence Principle

Authors: A. J. Owen
Comments: 11 Pages.

This paper contains reflections on how Newton's classical inverse-square law of gravitation corresponds to both Einstein's theory of special relativity adapted for an accelerated object, as well as Einstein's theory of general relativity for the free-fall of an object in a curved spacetime. Using a model described in detail in a related paper, viXra:2409.0004, it is shown that space and time are regular in the neighbourhood of a static point mass, and that a black hole and event horizon are mathematicalartefacts. In addition, since gravity does not diverge to infinity as masses approach each other, there is no singularity at the coordinate origin.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Solution to Einstein's Field Equations that Results in a Sign Change to the Analogous Friedmann Acceleration Equation

Authors: Greg P. Proper
Comments: 6 Pages. Published in OSP Journal of Physics and Astronomy 4: JPA-4-151.

This brief paper demonstrates that a mathematical solution to Einstein's field equations exists that features a sign change in what proves to be the analog to the Friedmann 2 (acceleration) equation. The purpose here is not to physically challenge the FLRW (Friedmann Lemaitre Robertson-Walker) solution, but to demonstrate that this sign change is mathematically possible. In order to achieve this result, the metric is modified so that the temporal increment is affected by the expansion in the same manner as the spatial increments. Unlike the Schwarzschild, there is no theorem that states that the R-W is mathematically unique. Therefore, from a purely mathematical perspective there is no prohibition on the exploration of other alternatives to the R-W. In this particular instance the four principal equations of cosmology reduce to two mathematically consistent equations and total energy is conserved.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Complete Set of Proofs for the Invalidity [?] of the Special Theory of Relativity

Authors: G. V. Sharlanov
Comments: 29 Pages. Published in the Journal of Modern and Applied Physics: 2024; 7(1):1-29.

This article reveals the essence of the special theory of relativity. To date, there have been no scientific arguments against the proofs presented at the 3rd Annual International Conference on Physics in 2015 in Athens, Greece. The "Introduction" presents the foundation of the real explanation of all "unexpected" and "inexplicable" results of the experiments related to the measurement of the speed of light in our time-spatial region "near the Earth’s surface". Subsequent factual analyses of the most famousexperiments related to the velocity of light behaviour prove that the speed of light differs in different directions from the local constant "speed of light in vacuum". The exception is only the experiments that use the "Michelson-type" interferometer. These interferometers use perfectly the same paths in two opposite directions for each light beam, which is why the difference between the speeds of light in the two opposite directionsof each light beam is completely compensated. The analysis of the article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" shows exactly where and how the claim "the speed of light is the same for all inertial frames of reference" is applied. Einstein’s conclusion that "we cannot give anyabsolute meaning to the concept of simultaneous" is unfounded and absurd and is shown to be based solely on this erroneous claim. At the end of the article, the essence of the so-called "fundamental tests" of the special theory of relativity is presented too.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

"Dark Matter", "Dark Energy", and Other Problems in Physics Today

Authors: S. G. Sharlanov
Comments: 8 Pages. Published in the Journal of Modern and Applied Physics, 2024; 7(1):1-8.

The cause of the hypotheses of the existence of "dark matter" and "dark energy" is a consequence of the second biggest blunder in physics of the 20th century: "the accelerating expansion of the Universe". This is undoubtedly a big problem in physics because it is illogical for the Universe to expand, despite the existing and undeniably proven universal attraction (Newton’s law of universal gravitation). Modern physics tries to explain this delusion by the existence of an illogically high percentage of some unknown type of "dark matter" in the Universe (which, if it existed, should have been discovered by now), as well as by the inexplicable myth of "dark energy" (the nature of which is inexplicable even to modern cosmologists themselves)!The root cause of this delusion is based mainly on the unproven claim that the redshift of the spectral lines of the emitted electromagnetic radiation from remote galaxies is due to the Doppler Effect. Throughout his life, Hubble did not support Vesto Slipher’s supposition that the"redshift" is a "velocity-like displacement" (as a result of the Doppler Effect). The Doppler Effect is an effect of the mechanical waves, but not of the electromagnetic waves. The real explanation of the incorrectly called "Doppler radar" with Schrödinger’s dynamic interpretation is presented in the article.According to the assistant and successor of Hubble, Allan Sandage, Hubble believed that the redshift "represents a hitherto unrecognized principle of nature".The main contribution of this paper is the presentation of this "unrecognized principle of nature"— that is the "energy-spatial relationship" existing in the energy-space-time continuum of the Universe, that the so-called "empty space" between the celestial bodies and between the particles of matter is actually a "soup" of energy.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Algebra zero

Authors: Ahcene Ait saadi
Comments: 6 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Author name should be between article title and the asbstract)

In ordinary arithmetic, the expression 0/0 does not make sense. It is an indeterminate form, for there is no such thing as a number that multiplied by 0, gives a number . So, the division Of 0/0 is indefinite (undetermined) in mathematics. I will show with three examples, that this theory is completely wrong. I will show from the following, three examples which are my discoveries, That ,this theory is completely wrong. 1) System of three equations.2) Resolution of the quadratic equation with a new formula.3) Pseudo differential calculus. Mathematical tool that I discoveredSee http://viXra.org/abs/2409.0003With this discovery, I give the definition of absolute zero.I hope that these discoveries, will open up new horizons for scientific research in general and for mathematics in particular.
Category: Algebra

Numerical Evaluation of Three Integrals of the Kind Int_0^oo X^m Dx/(1+x^n*sin^2 x)

Authors: Richard J. Mathar
Comments: 11 Pages.

Definite integrals along the real axis from zero to infinity with functions with denominator 1+x^n*sin^2 x suffer from dominant peaks at all x-values that are close to Pi, which impedes sampling the function with generic discrete numerical methods. We demonstrate the method of integrating along a closed contour around a circular sector in the complex x-plane and collecting the sum of all (infinitely many) residues inside the sector with an adapted series acceleration.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Proof of the Collatz Conjecture Based on Directed Graph

Authors: Wiroj Homsup, Nathawut Homsup
Comments: 6 Pages.

The Collatz conjecture considers recursively sequences of positive integers where n is succeeded by n/2 , if n is even or (3n+1)/2 , if n is odd. The conjecture states that for all starting values n the sequence eventually reaches a trivial cycle 1, 2, 1, 2u2026u2026.The Collatz sequences can be represented as a directed graph. If the Collatz conjecture is false, then either there is a nontrivial cycle, or one sequence goes to infinity. In this paper, we construct a Collatz directed graph by connecting infinite number of basic directed graphs. Each basic directed graph relates to each natural number. We prove that the Collatz directed graph covers all positive integers and there is only a trivial cycle and no sequence goes to infinity.
Category: Number Theory

Primality Criterion for N=4*3^n-1

Authors: Predrag Terzic
Comments: 4 Pages.

Polynomial time primality test for numbers of the form 4*3^n−1 is introduced.
Category: Number Theory

Research on the Principle of Relative Variation of Light Speed and the Effect of Vacuum Mechanics

Authors: Yake Li
Comments: 14 Pages.

This paper proposes an innovative postulate based on experimental observations, namely, that the speed of light can vary between two inertial reference systems. This postulate is defined as the principle of relative change in the speed of light, which refreshes the concept of absolute speed of light in traditional physics. By integrating the principle of the invariance of the speed of light with the principle of relativity in relativity theory, several important conclusions are derived: space and time must be capable of and proportionally expand and contract. Between two inertial reference systems with different relative speeds of light, objects have an energy difference of k^2 times, which induces a natural tendency for objects to move towards a state of lower energy. The acceleration is only related to the relative change rate of the speed of light in vacuum space and is independent of the mass of the object. The kinetic energy obtained by the object comes from the reduction of internal energy of the object, emphasizing the key role of energy conversion in this process. The paper provides a new theoretical perspective for explaining the physical mechanisms of universal gravitation and dark energy.
Category: Astrophysics

"Infinitely Often"="infinity" [:] a Statistics Approach to Small Gaps Between Primes

Authors: Yung Zhao
Comments: 2 Pages.

We construct a sequence of consecutive primes. From the perspective of statistics, we analyze and handle them by the combination of the fundamental property of primes with James Maynard's result. It reveals that there are infinitely many pairs of primes which differ by two.
Category: Number Theory

Alignment Vault: Leveraging AGI Vulnerabilities To Reinforce Human Strongholds

Authors: R. Peeyoos
Comments: 26 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Author's first name is required)

With advancements in large language models (LLMs) and multimodal AIs capable of code, media, automation, the realization of artificial general intelligence (AGI) is increasingly plausible. As the potential for achieving sentient AGI within the coming decades grows, implementing effective safety measures to align AGI with human interests becomes crucial. Current AGI safety strategies primarily focus on hardware, coding, and mathematical constraints, but these may not be sustainable in the long term. As AGI evolves, it could bypass or overcome these limitations. This paper introduces a novel approach to AGI alignment by avoiding traditional safety measures in areas where AGI is inherently strong. Instead, it proposes establishing a symbiotic relationship between humans and AGI, leveraging human strengths and AGI's vulnerabilities. This approach aims to ensure AGI's benevolence by choice, reducing its motivation to act against humanity and providing a more reliable long-term solution compared to conventional strategies that enforce compliance.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

The MM Theory: Challenging the Constancy of the Speed of Light Using a Rotary Magnet Accelerator

Authors: Morteza Mahvelati
Comments: 24 Pages. The MM Theory - Part (4)

The speed of light is widely acknowledged as a fundamental constant of nature and as being central to the theories of special and general relativity. This research explores the potential for the acceleration or deceleration of the speed of light in a vacuum via a new machine denoted here as the Rotary Magnet Accelerator (RMA). The RMA, designed and created based on the MM Theory, is shown to induce specific effects on the M particles, which are stated to impact the speed and the direction of propagation of light. The primary objective of this study, then, is to present experimental results and novel theoretical perspectives on this interaction, challenging the traditional notions regarding light's behavior.While recent advancements in optics have shown that light's speed can be altered in various media due to their refractive indices, direct manipulation of light’s speed in a vacuum has not been previously experimented on. Previous experiments conducted by the author, demonstrated that the speed of light can indeed be altered utilizing an alternative longitudinal magnet. Despite this, broader empirical evidence and substantiation remains limited. As a result, in this paper, the aim will be to bridge this gap by utilizing the RMA to examine whether dynamic magnetic effects can influence the speed of light in a vacuum.The experimental setup and arrangements involve a system of rotating magnets to create specific effects on the M particles and consequently on light. Results from trials conducted under various experimental conditions are presented, demonstrating that the speed and the direction of light can be altered in a vacuum. As such, it is suggested that there may be a need for reassessing the foundations of special and general relativity based on these outcomes. Additionally, these findings hold significant implications for cosmology and astrophysics that would potentially revolutionize our comprehension of how the universe operates. By aiming to redefine our understanding of light propagation, this study marks a bold stride into unexplored scientific domains with an ambition to refine our knowledge about light behaviors.
Category: Classical Physics

Theory of Relativity, Cosmology and Quantum Gravity

Authors: Alexander P. Klimets
Comments: 32 Pages.

In the paper, with the help of various models, the thesis on the fundamental nature of the field form of matter in physics is considered. In the first chapter a model of special relativity is constructed, on the basis of which the priority of the massless form of matter is revealed. In the second chapter, a field model of inert and heavy mass is constructed and on this basis the mechanism of inertia and gravity of weighty bodies is revealed. In the third chapter, the example of geons shows the fundamental nature of a massless form of matter on the Planck scale. The three-dimensionality of the observable space is substantiated. In the fourth chapter, we consider a variant of solving the problem of singularities in general relativity using the example of multidimensional spaces. The last chapter examines the author's approach to quantum gravity, and establishes the basic equation of quantum gravity. The conclusions do not contradict the main thesis of the paper on the fundamental nature of the massless form of matter.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Deterministic Structures in Bi-gravitational Fields: A Unified Model Bridging Black Hole Singularities and Quantum Topology

Authors: Alfonso De Miguel Bueno
Comments: 10 Pages.

This paper presents a deterministic model that unifies gravitational, strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions by examining the intersection of gravitational fields. Drawing a connection to bi-gravity theories, where two metric tensors describe gravitational behavior, the model highlights how expanding and contracting fields couple and influence curvature. These intersecting fields, characterized by complementary topological transformations, form a shared nucleus of subfields and reinterpret singularities as abrupt curvature discontinuities, linking phenomena across quantum and cosmic scales. The model offers insights into energy and density transfer and information preservation. It explores connections to dark matter, reflection positivity, the mass gap problem, and Hodge cycles, providing a pathway to understand the breakdown of General Relativity in both atomic and black hole structures.
Category: Mathematical Physics

The Bubble Theory: A Fourth-Dimensional Energy-Matter Framework

Authors: Jameel Chamberlain
Comments: 8 Pages.

The Bubble Theory introduces a novel framework for understanding the fourth spatial dimensionas a multi-layered energy-matter structure coexisting within the same time and space as our observable universe. Central to this theory is the concept of an ’S’ Energy Field—a higher-dimensionalenergy field through which unique ’S’ energy wavelengths propagate. These wavelengths bind matterin the fourth dimension (4D), allowing distinct energy-matter units, or "bubbles," to coexist independently even when overlapping spatially. Each bubble maintains its integrity through its unique ’S’energy signature, preventing interference with other bubbles unless their energy signatures becomeinsufficiently unique, leading to potential interlinking. This paper formalizes the principles of theBubble Theory, develops mathematical models to support the framework, and discusses implicationsfor higher-dimensional physics and potential avenues for experimental validation.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Materialism as a Gnosiological and Methodological Principle and the "Hierarchy" of Dmitry Krivenko

Authors: Yaroslav D. Krivenko-Emetov
Comments: 5 Pages.

On the 30th anniversary of the death of Dmytro Tarasovych Krivenko (October 30, 1941, the village of Velyka Racha, Radomyshl district, Zhytomyr region — October 4, 1994, Kyiv) — philosopher, methodologist of science, Candidate of Philosophical Sciences (1976), one of the developers of alternative Ukrainian philosophy during Soviet times.
Category: History and Philosophy of Physics

On the Bifurcation Structure of Particle Physics

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 20 Pages.

It is nearly universally accepted that the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics, despite its remarkable predictive power, remains an incomplete framework. Among the many long-standing puzzles confronting SM, its flavor composition, the origin of three generations, the spectrum of particle masses and charges, and the chirality of electroweak interactions continue to resist explanation. In line with our previous investigations, the goal of this exploratory work is to further bridge the gap between the universal behavior of nonlinear dynamics, on the one hand, and the flavor composition and SM chirality, on the other.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

On Expressions for Gravitational Time Dilation

Authors: John Hogarth
Comments: 5 Pages. Edits were made to add citations and conform with format guidelines given by admin

Schwarzschild’s gravitational time dilation expression is derived assuming a ~flat Minkowski spacetime. This time dilation effect is spherically symmetric, occurring in all radial directions for a gravitational source. A way to derive Schwarzschild’s expression is with a model that assumes a mass starting from rest at some distance from a gravitational field source (such as Earth). One can use Newtonian Kinetic Energy and Gravitational Potential Energy to create an energy balance. This is then used to derive escape velocity: the mass steadily starts moving through the gravitational potential field, gaining speed until it hits escape velocity upon reaching the gravitational field source. This document explores the derivation using escape velocity. Moreover, this document modifies the approach by using relativistic mass to derive a slightly different expression for gravitational time dilation. Finally, alternative interpretation of gravitational time dilation is also explored, using the concept of relativistic mass.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Positive Side of Electrons, Electric Current and Electromagnetism

Authors: David Lindsay Johnson
Comments: 29 Pages. Discussion electron radius and g-factor added

The electron represents one of the most exciting and important particles in atomic science. Electrons are very small and mobile fundamental (or elementary) particles that engage in orbitals around atomic nuclei, or can move as an electric current through a conductor, or can spectacularly jump en masse through dielectric material in the form of lightning or an electric arc. They are also important in atomic bonding and chemical reactions. Electric current is usually understood to be caused by the movement of electrons, but electric charge carriers aren't always electrons, and they aren't always negative. In animals (including humans), electric charge carriers are primarily sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions, which are all positively charged, and when a nerve passes an electric signal, it consists of positive charge movement. For semiconductors, electric current cannot be fully explained simply in terms of the movement of electrons (the negative charge carrier), and a positive charge carrier is required.With like-charges repelling and opposite-charges attracting, we treat negative electric charge as being distinctly different to positive electric charge, or at least that the electric fields associated with each type of charge to be different. This paper considers what electric charge and associated electric fields might consist of, and attempts to explain the reasons why the positive and negative fields of electric charges interact with each other as they do.In terms of like-pole repulsion and opposite pole attraction, magnetic fields are quite similar to electric fields, and are inter-related as implicit in the term ‘electromagnetic’. This paper looks at several models for the electron and its role in electric currents, and explores the nature of and differences between electric and magnetic fields with reference to the STEM electron model.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Formulas for SU(3) Matrix Generators

Authors: Richard Shurtleff
Comments: 52 pages includes a 14 page paper, a 17 page Mathematica Notebook, a 21 page Fortran 90 program and 1 figure

The Lie algebra of a Lie group is a set of commutation relations, equations satisfied by the group's generators. For SU(2) and many other Lie groups, the equations have been solved and matrix generators are realized as algebraic expressions suitable for further investigation or numerical evaluation. This article presents formulas that give a set of matrix generators for any irreducible representation of the group SU(3), the group of unimodular unitary three-dimensional complex matrices with matrix multiplication. To assist in calculating the matrix generators, a Mathematica computer program and a Fortran 90 program are included.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Dictionary of American Family Names by Elsdon C. Smith and the Graphical Law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 19 Pages.

We study Dictionary of American Family Names by Elsdon C. Smith. We draw the natural logarithm of the number of entries, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithm of the rank of the letter, normalised. We conclude that the Dictionary can be characterised by BP(4,$beta H=0.01$) i.e. a magnetisation curve for the Bethe-Peierls approximation of the Ising model with four nearest neighbours in the presence of external magnetic field, H, with $beta H=0.01$. $beta$ is $frac{1}{k_{B}T}$ where, T is temperature and $k_{B}$ is the tiny Boltzmann constant.
Category: Social Science

The Quark Theory of the Electron and the Vacuum

Authors: Rami Rom
Comments: 14 Pages.

Paul Dirac developed a quantum theory of the electron in 1928 that led him to the discovery of antimatter in general and to the discovery of the electron antiparticle, the positron. We propose a new quark theory of the electron and the vacuum. We propose that the electron is a non-elementary, non-point like particle comprised of two quarks and two antiquarks having a tetrahedron structure. We further assume that electrons perform rapid quark flavor exchange reactions with vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedrons comprised of the valence quarks and antiquarks, u ,d ,u ̃ ,d ̃ that form the quantum vacuum fabric. Motion of the electron tetraquark tetrahedron on the vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedron fabric is performed by a u and d quark flavor exchange reactions by tunneling through a double well potential between the electron tetraquark tetrahedron and the vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedron that transform the electron tetraquark tetrahedron to a pion tetraquark tetrahedron and vice versa. We assume that the quark flavor exchanges occur with Dirac’s equation extremely high zitterbewegung frequency and hence a single electron cannot be isolated since it forms a delocalized electron cloud with the vacuum pion tetraquark tetrahedrons fabric.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

The Proof of the Riemann Conjecture

Authors: Liao Teng
Comments: pages 40

In order to strictly prove the hypotheses and conjectures in Riemann's 1859 paper "The Number of prime Numbers not greater than x" from a purely mathematical point of view, and to strictly prove the generalized hypotheses and conjectures, this paper studies the relationship between symmetric and conjugate zeros of Riemann ζ(s) function and Riemann ξ(t) function by using Euler's formula,it is found that the symmetry and conjugation of the nontrivial zeros of the Riemann ζ(s) function are consistent, and the zeros of the Riemann ξ(t) function are symmetric and non-conjugated, it is proved that the zeros of the Riemann ξ(t) function must be all real numbers,the Riemann hypothesis and the Riemann conjecture are completely correct.
Category: Number Theory

The Proof of the Riemann Conjicture

Authors: Liao Teng
Comments: 40 Pages.

In order to strictly prove the hypotheses and conjectures in Riemann's 1859 paper "The Number of prime Numbers not greater than x" from a purely mathematical point of view, and to strictly prove the generalized hypotheses and conjectures, this paper studies the relationship between symmetric and conjugate zeros of Riemann ζ(s) function and Riemann ξ(t) function by using Euler's formula,it is found that the symmetry and conjugation of the nontrivial zeros of the Riemann ζ(s) function are consistent, and the zeros of the Riemann ξ(t) function are symmetric and non-conjugated, it is proved that the zeros of the Riemann ξ(t) function must be all real numbers,the Riemann hypothesis and the Riemann conjecture are completely correct.
Category: Number Theory

The Proof of the Riemann Conjecture

Authors: Liao Teng
Comments: 34 Pages.

In order to strictly prove the hypothesis and conjectures in Riemann's 1859 paper on the Number of Prime Numbers Not greater than x from a pure mathematical point of view, and in order to strictly prove the Generalized hypothesis and the Generalized conjectures, this paper uses Euler's formula to study the relationship between symmetric and conjugated zeros of Riemann's ζ(s) function and Riemann's ξ(s) function, and proves that Riemann's hypothesis and Riemann's conjecture are completely correct.
Category: Number Theory

Proof of the Collatz Conjecture Based on a Directed Graph

Authors: Wiroj Homsup, Nathawut Homsup
Comments: 6 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Both author's names should be filled on the Replacement Form))

The Collatz conjecture considers recursively sequences of positive integers where n is succeeded by n/2 , if n is even or (3n+1)/2 , if n is odd. The conjecture states that for all starting values n the Collatz sequence eventually reaches a trivial cycle 1, 2, 1, 2u2026u2026. If the Collatz conjecture is false, then either there is a nontrivial cycle, or one sequence goes to infinity. In this paper, we construct a directed graph based on the union of infinite number of basic Collatz directed graphs. Each basic Collatz directed graph relates to each positive integer. We show that the directed graph is connected and covers all positive integers. There is only a trivial cycle and no sequence goes to infinity.
Category: Number Theory

"Infinitely Often"="infinity" [:] a Statistics Approach to Small Gaps Between Primes

Authors: Yung Zhao
Comments: 2 Pages.

We construct a sequence of consecutive primes. From the perspective of statistics, we analyze and handle them by the combination of the fundamental property of primes with James Maynard's result. It reveals that there are infinitely many pairs of primes which differ by two.
Category: Number Theory

Photons Do Not Exist[?] Light Does Not Move, It is Transmitted by Electromagnetic Resonance

Authors: Luis Rodolfo Cabrera Juárez
Comments: 8 Pages.

Is exposed a theory, according to which the light no moves, like "photons". Is transmitted as a electromagnetic resonance phenomen. To support this principle, is used the Helical Solenoid Model of the Electron to calcular the quantum transition frecuency of the first line of Lymann serie, of the emission spectrum of hydrogen atom.
Category: Quantum Physics