Geophysics

Early Sunspot Discovery: A Dismissed Insight Challenges Prevailing Theories

Authors: Ulrich Schreier
Comments: 2 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: This article is not written in a scholarly manner - Please conform!)

The seasonal pattern in daily sunspot numbers, first documented with a 12-year graph in theearly 1900s, suggests that Earth’s orbital position significantly influences sunspot formation,revealing deeper connections between solar and terrestrial phenomena. Given that sunspotsare thought to appear on a celestial body 149 million kilometers away and 1.3 million timeslarger than Earth, this seasonality casts further doubt on current Sun-centered sunspottheories. This easily reproducible pattern with modern tools, challenges prevailing theoriesand could necessitate substantial revisions in mainstream cosmology, especially regardingcosmic influences on Earth and life. Alongside this groundbreaking discovery, Mémery alsopublished correlations between sunspots and atmospheric pressure, rainfall, temperature,earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions—findings that took decades to be re-discovered.
Category: Geophysics

Note on the Transformation From STT or Local Coordinate System to the NTT Coordinate System

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 10 Pages.

In this note, we give the details of how to calculate the parameters of the transformation from STT or local coordinate system to the NTT coordinate system the Tunisian geodetic terrestrial system.
Category: Geophysics

Mechanism of Earth Plate Motion (Driving Force of Continental Drift)

Authors: Hyukee Ahn
Comments: 13 Pages.

I suggest a mechanism for the force that moves continents. This force is ‘ridge push by Plate Tide lever working’. This force, which moves the plates of the Earth, This is the same force that splits Supercontinents, spreaing seafloor, and forms giant mountain ranges.The source of this force is the Earth plate tide by Moon and Sun. Earth plate fatigue failure by continuous tidal force. The cause of Continental drifting and Sea floor spreading is Earth plate tide and ridge push lever effect work.
Category: Geophysics

Methods of Resolution

Authors: Noureddine Horrigue, Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 20 Pages. In French

This paper is the digital version of a chapter taken from the final thesis of the first author entitled "Compensation of Geodetic Networks". This is chapter V "Resolution Methods" of the thesis. It concerns the methods for solving the equations of linear systems encountered during compensation calculations for geodetic networks using the least squares method.
Category: Geophysics

Statistical Physics Model of Seismic Activation Preceding a Major Earthquake

Authors: Daniel S. Brox
Comments: 11 Pages.

Starting from earthquake fault dynamic equations, a correspondence between earthquake occurrence statistics in a seismic region before a major earthquake and eigenvalue statistics of a differential operator whose bound state eigenfunctions characterize the distribution of stress in the seismic region is derived. Modeling these eigenvalue statistics with a 2D Coulomb Gas statistical physics model, previously reported deviation of seismic activation earthquake occurence statistics from Gutenberg-Richter statistics in time intervals preceding the major earthquake is derived. It is also explained how statistical physics modelling predicts a finite dimensional nonlinear dynamic system describes real time velocity model evolution in the region undergoing seismic activation, and how this prediction can be tested experimentally.
Category: Geophysics

Seismic Anomaly: Analytical Solutions

Authors: Michael Zuev
Comments: 34 Pages.

In this article we provide some analytical solutions of seismic equations with the different sources for a media, consisting of Uniform Half-Space (Air or Water oru2026) & solid Uniform Half-Space (Earth), containing a localized Anomaly. Such solutions allow building the very fast computer-based programs to decipher near-surface caves, karsts, tunnels, engineering applications, etc. This way particularly allows to go along a curved line, discovering already built tunnels without noise detection.We consider sources and model, which are practical for onshore and offshore (in deep water) seismic explorations. One may apply some forms of seismic solutions for a deep exploration of the slightly inclined multi-layer underground structures to find oil-gas-minerals-water-bearing lenses (see for example [9]). Here we apply the found solutions for shallow sounding to describe an effect from Anomaly.Also we showed a math similarity of uniform fluid (within Navier-Stokes equation) with seismic isotropic linear media (excluding the boundary layers). The details of boundary conditions are discussed, as well as the first orders of decomposition theory for the Fourier-Bessel representations of the seismic displacements. It is noted that within reasonable survey parameters an azimuth component can be ignored. Besides, it is observed, that we cannot stitch non-viscous fluid with solids directly, instead of this we must consider a limit transfer of solid-solid interaction. The radial and vertical displacements inside solid half-space are obtained as well as effects from localized Anomalies. For the cases of distributed Anomalies (karsts, tunnels, etc.) a convergence of analytical solutions was shown.
Category: Geophysics

Note on The Passage From (X, Y, Z) Coordinates to (varphi,lambda, he) Coordinates

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 8 Pages. In French

In this note, we present another method of passing from geocentric coordinates $(X,Y,Z)$ to geodetic coordinates $(varphi,lambda,he)$ with respect to an ellipsoid of revolution with parameters $(a, e)$ where $a$ and $e$ are the semi-major axis and the first eccentricity, respectively.
Category: Geophysics

Elements of Geodesy in Mauritania and Introduction to GPS

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 28 Pages. In French

In this paper, we give in the part I some elements of geodesy and the geodetic systems used in Mauritania. The part II contains an introduction to GPS.
Category: Geophysics

A Method of Predicting Earthquakes in Advance

Authors: Xia Cao
Comments: 19 Pages.

The internal collision movement of the earth in the early stage of geological disasters will be different from the ordinary, and the generated signals are also unusual. The possibility of geological disasters such as earthquakes can be monitored and predicted by utilizing the changes caused by the continuous collision movement deep inside the earth. This new system based on the Collision Electro-Magnetic Theory was first proposed for monitoring geological disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, avalanches, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and debris flows. The system mainly consists of a collision-based power generator and a receiver. The collision-based power generator can be made from a single material or a composite of several materials. The receiver can be composed of one or more types of semiconductors, conductors, or composite materials that are resistant to high temperatures and have excellent mechanical properties. It is simple and effective, and can greatly improve the accuracy and timeliness of disaster warnings. Recognizing precursors to longitudinal waves is crucial for predicting earthquakes and minimizing both human and economic losses, and seismometers that are exempt from regular power source replacement and performance degradation under humid conditions are highly anticipated. This work draws inspiration from the three-dimensional microstructure of the superhydrophobic lotus leaf surface and transfers the microstructure from nano-SiO2 to Ecoflex surface. A self-powered, low-cost, highly durable, and stable triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) was thus developed for earthquake warning based on the superhydrophobic, self-cleaning, and flame retardant film. The as-prepared TENG can convert the tiny vibration in the earth into electricity with a peak power density of 15.4 mW/m². In addition, there is a strong linear correlation (The R2 value is 0.98 and 0.99.) between peak current and vibration acceleration and vibration when the EW-TENG is applied to different vibration intensities. It is possible to analyze the peak current to calculate the vibration intensity. Then, the real-time monitoring capability of the EW-TENG is verified in a more realistic simulated geological disaster scenario. Considering the self-power feature, it may contribute to fast earthquake response and rescue efforts, as well as research in reducing the risk of seismic hazards.
Category: Geophysics

Temporal Correspondences in the Period 1905-2023 Between the Bradyseismic Trend at Campi Flegrei, the Periods of Lunar Culminations with Altitude Above 75° and the New Moons in Perigee Orbiting on the Boreal Segment Delimited by the Meridians +1° and +25°

Authors: Adriano Ballabene
Comments: 25 Pages. 5 images 42 diagrams 6 tables

The Campi Flegrei are an extensive volcanic area west of Naples subject to slow vertical deformation of the ground.The accelerations of the phenomenon which occurred in the periods 1950-1952, 1969-1972, 1982-1984 resulted in an overall uplift of just under 4 metres.It is shown how in the period 1905-2023 the most relevant ascending phases of phlegraean bradyseism, except two, took place during the periods of lunar Culminations with a Altitude greater than 75 degrees after which the ground has decreased or more in general it has not undergone considerable changes: from 1905 to 2023, excluding the 1982-1984 and 2010-2021 windows, every period of lunar Culminations with a Altitude lower than 75 degrees can be aligned with an subsidence. Two ascending phases do not align with the periods of highest Moons, but the first (1982-1984) was anticipated and accompanied by a peculiar sequence of 3 New Moons High in Super and Extreme Perigee orbiting at the peak of the sygytial phase over the Central Europe and the second took place during an configuration (extensive and unique) of some Elevated New Moons in Perigee over Italy in the central period (2013-2018) intermediate (2010-2021) to the two periods 2003-2009 and 2022-2028 with maximum Culminations. It is highlighted how the distribution over time of the 24 most relevant Moons, in gravitational and geometric terms, corresponds to concomitant bradyseismic phases of proportionate importance. By far the most intense bradyseismic phase, that of 1982-1984, corresponds to the largest concentration of Major Moons and the most moderate and prolonged uplift phase (2005-2023) corresponds to an extensive distribution of "Central European" High New Moons in Perigee only Minimum. It is shown how these 24 Moons (which will be called Major Moons here as they are simultaneously the highest New Moons in the local celestial vault, the closest to the Earth and the most attractive because combined with the gravitational force of the Sun) are not to be considered isolated but always accompanied, before and after, by a harmonica of Elevate Moons in Super and Extreme Perigee.
Category: Geophysics

On Two Proprieties of the UTM Projection

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 5 Pages. In French

In this note, we give the proof of one propriety of the UTM plane representation.
Category: Geophysics

Mysterious, Modulated Continuous Oscillations of Air Pressure in Central Europe

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 10 Pages.

A comparison of the spectra of many European barometers shows that, despite the large distances between the sensors, the air pressure changes in phase at certain very low frequencies. The period lengths of around 60 hours are not related to the length of the day and do not provide any information about the possible causes of these oscillations. Over a period of twenty years, constant amplitudes and phase modulations are measured at a few discrete frequencies.
Category: Geophysics

Rätselhafte, Modulierte Dauerschwingungen Des Luftdrucks in Mitteleuropa
Mysterious, Modulated Continuous Oscillations of Air Pressure in Central Europe

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 10 Pages.

Ein Vergleich der Spektren vieler europäischer Barometer zeigt, dass sich der Luftdruck bei speziellen, sehr niedrigen Frequenzen trotz großer Abstände der Sensoren phasengleich ändert. Die Periodendauern von etwa 60 Stunden stehen in keiner Relation zur Tageslänge und liefern keine Hinweise auf mögliche Ursachen dieser Schwingungen. Während des Zeitraums von zwanzig Jahren misst man konstante Amplituden und Phasenmodulation mit wenigen diskreten Frequenzen.

A comparison of the spectra of many European barometers shows that, despite the large distances between the sensors, the air pressure changes in phase at certain very low frequencies. The period lengths of around 60 hours are not related to the length of the day and do not provide any information about the possible causes of these oscillations. Over a period of twenty years, constant amplitudes and phase modulations are measured at a few discrete frequencies.
Category: Geophysics

Molodensky -Badekas Transformation of Seven Parameters

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 15 Pages. In French

In this paper, we present the Molodensky-Badekas seven-parameter transformation from one geodetic system to another, showing how to determine the 7 parameters by the method of least squares and calculate them numerically following the number of the parameters 4, 5 or 7.
Category: Geophysics

Geodesy, GPS and Topography

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 92 Pages. In French

It is the part I of lectures on geodesy given to the technical personnel of the ETAP (Tunisian Society of Oil Activities).
Category: Geophysics

Presentation of the Cases 4,5 and 7 Parameters of Bursa-Wolf Transformation

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 14 Pages. In French

In this note, we present the Bursa-Wolf seven-parameter transformation from one geodetic system to another, showing how to determine the 7 parameters by the method of least squares and calculate them numerically following the number of the parameters 4,5 or 7.
Category: Geophysics

The Tunisian Land Information System (TLIS)

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 63 Pages. In French

To celebrate the launch of the "Tunisian Land Information System (TLIS)" project, we would like to recall some of the history of Tunisian geodesy since its inception, and describe in detail the terrestrial and spatial geodetic systems that have been used since then.
Category: Geophysics

The Transformation of Bursa-Wolf of Seven Parameters

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 9 Pages. In French

In this note, we present the Bursa-Wolf seven-parameter transformation from one geodetic system to another, showing how to determine the 7 parameters by the method of least squares and calculate them numerically.
Category: Geophysics

Note on the Resolution of the Equation β(φ)=Y Used in Geodesy

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 9 Pages. In French

In this note, we give a method to resolve the equation β(φ)=Y used in geodesy, where β(φ) is the length of the arc of the meridian of an ellipse or an ellipsoid from the equator to the point of geodetic latitude φ.
Category: Geophysics

Increased Aperiodic Hydrothermal Activity in Defined Submarine Areas ( Volcanic Areas and Tectonic Fractures ) at a Global Scale

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 28 Pages, 180 images

My study provides first evidence of the real sources of the SST-anomalies which lead to the development of El Ninos: These are hydrothermal-sources, which are located for example in the Kermadec-Tonga-Arc (e.g. in the Monowai- and Macauley-Volcanic-areas), New-Hebredes-Trench-area, Nankai-Trough- and Philippine-Plate-area, Salado-Fracture-Zone, Falkland-Agulhas-Fracture-Zone, South-West-Indian-Ridge-area, Mid-Atlantic-Ridge, LFZ, Kane-Fracture-Zone and in the Pacific-Plate east of Japan, to name the important locations. The cause of El Nino-events seems to be hydrothermal-water that rises from submarine volcanic-areas and tectonic-fractures to the ocean-surface ! On the ocean-surface this hydrothermal-water appears in the form of growing-plumes or-blobs (sea-surface-temperature-(SST)-anomalies), which then get distributed by the main ocean-currents and by surface-currents. With the NASA-Worldview-tool an analysis of the sea-surface-temperature (SST)-anomalies was done for the time-period Oct.2021 to June 2023, and for the time-periods in which the strong El Ninos from 1997/98 and 2014-16 developed. Five areas ( 1—5 ) on the ocean-floor were found where large amounts of hydrothermal-water was rising from specific areas on the ocean-floor to the surface at irregular-intervals during the mentioned time-periods ! Note: The irregular hydrothermal-activity in these five areas is a global phenomenon !! The hydrothermal-activity comes and goes in a "wave-like-pattern", which often causes activity in 3-5 areas, which are thousands of km apart, at nearly the same time ! As an example I want to mention the period 9.12.2013 to 21.12.2013 (12 days) in which the hydrothermal-activity reached a maximum level in at least four of the five areas (1-5) in this short time-period ! Note: These areas are located in the northern- and southern-Hemisphere. Changes in Earths Magnetic-Field seem to be the main cause of this increased Hydrothermal-and Volcanic-Activity ! These changes (e.g. geomagnetic-jerks) in Earths-Magnetic-Field can be caused either by internal-processes which take place near the Core-Mantle-Boundary (CMB), or they can be caused by external-events, which are strong geomagnetic-storms caused by solar-wind (space-weather). First the geomagnetic-changes (e.g. geomagnetic-jerks) seem to increase seismicity in High-Geothermal-Flux-(HGF)-areas, then with a certain delay hydrothermal-activity, especially along tectonic-fractures, is increasing, which then rises the SST and the Ocean-Heat-Content, and finally causes El-Ninos. The key to find the hydrothermal- or volcanic-sources, which cause the strong temperature-anomalies, is the precise observation of the development of every major anomaly in an animation, from the early beginning, when the first small warm-water-blob appears on the surface ! Part-2 of my hypothesis explains the probable causes of the described "global-hydrothermal-activity" in more detail !
Category: Geophysics

Correlation of Volcanism with Geo-Magnetic-Changes (Solar Storms and North-Pole-Shift) List of Geomagnetic Storms 1800-2023

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 18 pages, 30 images, 3 tables

Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field seem to be a main cause of Volcanic-Eruptions on Earth ! These changes (or disturbances) in Earth’s Magnetic-Field can be caused either by internal processes which take place near the Core-Mantle-Boundary (CMB), or they can be caused by external events which are strong geo-magnetic-storms caused by solar wind (space-weather). The maximum impact of the external events (geo-magnetic storms) on Volcanism seems to be around +/-20%, and the impact of internal-effects seems to be around +/-30%. As internal effect the North-Magnetic Pole Shift must be mentioned, which showed a very high acceleration between 1993 and 2002. The internal-processes inside Earth’s mantle which caused this fast shift of the North-Magnetic-Pole seem to be responsible for an increase of ~30% of Earth’s Volcanism between 1997 & 2008. In this paper I want to describe the impact of the external-events, the impact of strong geo-magnetic Storms, on Earth’s Volcanic Activity. The chart of —Total Volcanic Eruptions per year- and -Strong Geomagnetic-Storms- in the time 1800-2023 clearly shows that there are sharp increases in the number of volcanic-eruptions visible, shortly after the occurence of strong geomagnetic-storms (or -storm-periods). Further there is a clearly visible correlation of sunspot-(solar-cycle)-minimas and Lows in the chart of the -Active Volcanos per year- which shows that Earth’s Volcanism is clearly influenced by strong geomagnetic-storm-periods, or by the missing of such storm-periods! During sunspot-minimas global volcanism clearly decreases be around 20% ! There is also a clear correlation of Global Volcanism (which is strongly effected by geomagnetic-effects), with HGFA-seismicity and Global Warming ! WARNING to Climatologists & Politicians!!: The sun has considerably reduced its solarwind-activity ! Since 2006 only two days with AP-values slightly >100 occured ! The sun is heating towards an extended solar-minimum with considerable lower sunspot-numbers and solarwind-activity !! This means a general colder climate on Earth as historical climate-data from the Dalton- & Maunder-Minimum clearly show. A look at the Ocean-Heat-Content-Chart (EN4) and the Geo-magnetic Ap-Index clearly shows that during the periods 1995-97 & 2006-2012 the Ocean Heat Content (0-2000m) was stagnating ! That means global warming nearly stopped !! During these periods the smoothed Ap-Index was ≤10, which means very low solarwind activity ! That’s why the impact of geomagnetic-changes (-storms) on Earth’s Climate is clearly higher than that of CO2 !! It’s a deciding factor ! That’s why we must predict the future Solar Activity !
Category: Geophysics

Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field are a main cause of Volcanism, Earthquakes, HGFA-seismicity & Global Warming

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 21 Pages. 50 images+diagrams, 3 Tables

Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field seem to be a main cause of Volcanic-Eruptions on Earth ! These changes (or disturbances) in Earth’s Magnetic-Field can be caused either by internal processes which take place near the Core-Mantle-Boundary (CMB), or they can be caused by external events which are strong geo-magnetic-storms caused by solar wind (space-weather). The maximum impact on volcanism, of the geomagnetic-changes caused by internal processes is around +/-30%, and the maximum impact of the external events is around +/-20%. There is a clear correlation of geo-magnetism, HGFA-seismicity, volcanism and global warming. First the geomagnetic-changes seem to cause earthquakes, especially in High-Geothermal-Flux-(HGF)-areas (e.g. mid-ocean-ridges), then with a delay of 1-2years Volcanism (& hydrothermal-activity) is increasing, which then rises the Ocean-Heat-Content (->El-Nino-events), and eventually accelerates Global-Warming. We can see a sharp rise and an elevation of the global-volcanic-activity since around 1997, just after the sharp acceleration of the North-Magnetic Pole-shift (Pole-wander) began, around 1-2 years before. The velocity of the North-Magnetic-Pole-shift was <20km/yr before 1990, and it increased to >45km/yr in 1997 ! In just 7 years it more then doubled ! This fast North-Magnetic-Pole-shift is caused by an interference/interaction between two large lobes (blobs) of negative-magnetic-flux near the Earth’s core-mantle-boundary (CMB), as Satellite-data of ESA’s Swarm-mission showed. This fast North-Magnetic Pole-shift, which can be explained by shifts of either fluids or electric-charge near the CMB, is a onetime-event which has increased global-volcanism by around 30% between ~1997 & 2015, probably caused by increased pressure inside Earth’s mantle, as a result of increased dynamical-processes near the CMB. Another effect which must be mentioned here: Strong magnetic-acceleration-patterns (magnetic-waves) which are located along the equatorial regions of the CMB, and which move around Earth’s outer-core with a 7-year period seem to influence Volcanism too. The -number of active volcanos- in the Phillipines which oscillates with a ~7-year period between 0 and ~3 may be the proof for that. Further there is a clear correlation of sunspot-(solar-cycle)-minimas and Lows in the chart of the -Active Volcanos per year- which shows that Earth’s Volcanism is clearly influenced by strong geomagnetic-storm-periods, or by the missing of such storm-periods ! During sunspot-minimas global volcanism clearly decreases by around +/-20%! Further the chart of -Total Volcanic Eruptions per year- and strong geomagnetic-storms from 1800-2023 shows that there are sharp increases in volcanic-eruptions visible, shortly after strong geomagnetic-storm-periods !
Category: Geophysics

Anomaly From the 189 Filtered Earthquakes

Authors: Alexis Zaganidis
Comments: 11 Pages. (Correction to Title made by viXra Admin to conform with scholalry norm - Please conform!)

A Specific Magnitude Budget for the Detection of 44 Nuclear Earthquakes near Large Urban Areas subject to a Natural Seismic Hazard was crucial for finding the typical parameters of the Nuclear Earthquakes : $5.9-7.9~M_w$, from 1st January 1960 to 15th September 2023, $R_i <160~km$ with the index $i$ spanning the $1230$ largest cities and having a maximal horizontal shaking ratio $10^{M_w,i} /R_i^2$ for each specific city $i$ satisfying these typical parameters. Therefore, it allows to build a filter $mathcal{F}_Z$ and to filter out a total of $189$ earthquakes around $372$ cities with a relatively low background of Natural Earthquakes with respect to the Nuclear ones. By including the $189$ filtered earthquakes around these $372$ cities, there is a total of $393$ cities having enough seismic data, with respect to a sufficiently large background of the recent smaller earthquakes around these same cities ($M_wgeq M_{w,0} =4.0$, 1980-2022, $R_i < R_{max}=160~km$, Gutenberg-Richter law and $Delta N_i geq 10^{5.9-4.0}>79$ in the case of an absence of filtered earthquakes with the filter $mathcal{F}_Z$), in order to derive the Probability Estimation of having a such maximal horizontal shaking ratio. Finally, there is a 8.4-$sigma$ anomaly from a statistical excess of the maximal horizontal shaking ratio of the filtered earthquakes with the filter $mathcal{F}_Z$ and with a Probability Estimation Cutoff of $<0.43$ (There is an artifact close to $1$ arising from an exponential behavior inside the Probability Estimation formula of having a such maximal horizontal shaking ratio). Of course, by taking some random positions for the $1230$ largest cities, it vanishes completely that 8.4-$sigma$ anomaly.
Category: Geophysics

Mechanism of Earth Plate Motion

Authors: Hyukee Ahn
Comments: 11 Pages.

I suggest a new mechanism for the force that moves continents. This force, which moves the plates of the Earth, is the same force that splits Supercontinents, creates oceans, and forms giant mountain ranges.I suggest that the source of this force is the Earth tides, specifically the Tide lever crack and Tide lever push work.
Category: Geophysics

Agricultural Drought Analysis in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Using Remote Sensing Data and Gis Technology

Authors: GyongBong Ju, CholMin Won, GwangSu Kim, YunHui Kim
Comments: 13 Pages.

This paper describes the comprehensive analysis and evaluation of agricultural drought phenomena in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from 2012 to 2021 using remote sensing technology and GIS technology, which have proven superior in drought research. We analyzed dynamic changes in agricultural drought according to the characteristics of each drought index during the growth period from 2012 to 2021 through the calculation of SPI, VCI, TCI, VHI, and NVSWI derived from time series CHIRPS and MODIS data. The moisture condition index (MCI) was newly proposed starting from the importance of the moisture condition of crops, confirmed reliable by comparing it with the staple agricultural drought indices. Paper proposed a new integrated drought index CDI that comprehensively reflects the vegetation status, soil moisture status, and crop moisture status using the logical calculation function of the geographic information system.As a result of examining the dynamic change of agricultural drought from 2012 to 2021 using CDI, high temperature and sub-normal rainfall were the main factors causing the drying. The integrated drought index CDI proposed in this paper provides a premise that can be a staple indicator for agricultural drought analysis and evaluation as it is possible to comprehensively and simultaneously consider the vegetation status, soil moisture status, and crop moisture status.
Category: Geophysics

Part III of the Correction of The Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 21 Pages. In French

This is the part III and the last of the correction of the collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

Part II of the Correction of The Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 17 Pages. In French

This is the part II of the correction of the collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

Part I of The Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 21 Pages. In French

This is the part I of the correction of the collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

Unveiling Earth's Hidden Secrets: Exploring the Hypothesis of a Quadrupolar Inner Planet Within an Oblate Dipolar Earth

Authors: D'Eart Ishintreel
Comments: 4 Pages.

This paper presents a mathematical analysis supporting the hypothesis of an inner planet within the Earth, characterized by a quadrupolar magnetic field. We propose that the oblateness of the Earth at the equator obstructs the horizontal component of the magnetic field, resulting in a dipolar magnetic field observed on the Earth's surface. By deriving mathematical equations and considering the geometry and parameters of the inner planet, we demonstrate the feasibility of this alternative model. The implications of this hypothesis for geophysical processes are discussed, along with the experimental and observational challenges associated with validating this hypothesis.
Category: Geophysics

Driving Force of Continental Drift

Authors: Hyukee Ahn
Comments: 11 Pages.

I suggest a new mechanism for the force that moves continents. This force, which moves the plates of the Earth, is the same force that splits Supercontinents, creates oceans, and forms giant mountain ranges.I suggest that the source of this force is the Earth tides, specifically the Tide lever crack and Tide lever push work.
Category: Geophysics

How Fictitious Instead of Gravity Forces Create Tides

Authors: Sjaak Uitterdijk
Comments: 12 Pages.

It is interesting to realize that a cubic meter of water at the surface of the oceans is subject to a gravitational force of 9800 N of Earth itself and to 0.03 N of Moon’s gravity force. So any influence of the Moon on the level of such water must be excluded. Notwithstanding this fact the most weird theories haven been developed to prove the opposite, especially to show which phenomenon creates the mysterious double frequency of the tides. This article shows an all-encompassing solution.
Category: Geophysics

A Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 17 Pages. In French

This paper contains a selected collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

The OTC Proposal for The Implementation of a Gravimetric Network In Tunisia And The Determination of a Geoid of Accuracy

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 5 Pages. In French

In this note, we present a proposal from the Office of Topography and Cartography (OTC) for the establishment of a gravity network as well as the determination of a high-precision national geoid. This proposal will involve partners working in this area.
Category: Geophysics

Introduction To Positionning And Cartography

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 20 Pages. In French

In this lecture, we present the basic elements necessary for reading topography maps and terrestrial positioning.
Category: Geophysics

A Tribute to the Memory of Prof. Helmut Moritz (1933-2022)

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem, Helmut Moritz
Comments: 16 Pages.

This paper is a tribute to the memory of professor and geodesist Helmut Moritz who passed away in December 2022. We present a paper about the theory of geodetic refraction written by him and presented during the International Symposium " Figure of the Earth and Refraction ",Vienna, March 14th-l7th, 1967.
Category: Geophysics

The 92

Authors: Richard A. Peters
Comments: 96 Pages.

The periodic table is a tabular representation of the 118 known chemical elements, including 92 naturally occurring elements. These elements are classified based on their atomic structure and properties, and are essential components of all matter in the universe.The elements can be broadly categorized into metals, non-metals and metalloids. Metals, such as iron, copper and gold are good conductors of electricity and have high melting and boiling points. Non-metals, such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, are poor conductors of electricity and have lower melting and boiling points. Metalloids, such as silicon and germanium, have properties that are intermediate between metals and non-metals.The properties of the elements vary widely, from noble gasses that are chemically inert and have low boiling points, to the highly reactive alkali metals that are easily oxidized and have low melting points. Many of the elements are essential for life, such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, while others have important industrial applications, such as iron, aluminum and copper.The study of the elements and their properties is essential to understanding the behavior of matter and the natural world. Advances in science and technology have led to the discovery of new elements and the development of new materials with unique properties and applications.
Category: Geophysics

Dynamical Geodesy

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 17 Pages. In French

It is a tribute to the memory of my professor of geodesy Jacques Le Menestrel. We give a numerical version of the two first chapters of his booklet "Dynamical Geodesy". It is part of his complete geodesy course, taught in the 70s of the last century, at the Ecole Nationale des Sciences Géographiques (ENSG), France.
Category: Geophysics

Study of the Acoustic Properties of Liquids at High Pressures

Authors: Umbar Esanov
Comments: 4 Pages.

This paper presents the results of experimental work with liquid benzene derivatives using the Mandelstam-Brillouin spectroscopy method. It shows the results of measuring the hypersound velocity and absorption in the pressure range 0.1—100 MPa and temperatures 293K-313K in the investigated liquids. With increasing pressure, an increase in hypersound velocity and a decrease in its absorption are found.
Category: Geophysics

Linkage of Magnetic Anomalies with Asteroid Impact Structures

Authors: Richard A. Peters
Comments: 22 Pages.

Magnetic anomalies are variations in the Earth's magnetic field that are caused by differences in the magnetic properties of rocks in the Earth's crust. These anomalies can be used to study the geology and structure of the Earth's crust and can provide important information about the location and size of geological features, includingasteroid impact structures. Asteroid impact structures are large depressions in the Earth's crust that are formed by the impact of an asteroid or other celestial body. When an asteroid impacts the Earth's surface, it can cause significant disruption to the local geology, including alterations to the magnetic properties of the rocks. This disruption can result in a measurable magnetic anomaly that is associated with the impact structure. By studying the magnetic anomalies associated with asteroid impact structures, scientists can gain important insights into the size, shape, and structure of the impact structure, as well as the nature of the rocks that were impacted. Magnetic surveys can be used to map the extent and characteristics of the anomaly, providing valuable information for geologists and mineral exploration companies. In addition to providing insights into the geology and structure of asteroid impact structures, the study of magnetic anomalies can also help scientists to better understand the history of the Earth's magnetic field and the processes that have shaped the Earth's crust over geological time.
Category: Geophysics

Driving Force of Earth Plate Motion

Authors: Hyukee Ahn
Comments: 11 Pages. (Abstract added to Article by viXra Admin - Please conform!)

I suggest that the source of this force is the Earth tides, specifically the Tide lever crack and Tide lever push work.
Category: Geophysics

A Note On Gravity Field And Gravimetry

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French

In this short note, we give some elements on the gravity field and gravimetry. In addition, we will return to applications for altitude definitions and precision leveling observations as well as distance reductions.
Category: Geophysics

A Specific Magnitude Budget for the Detection of 30 Nuclear Earthquakes in Urban Areas Subject to a Natural Seismic Hazard.

Authors: Alexis Zaganidis
Comments: 20 Pages.

Multiple underground nuclear explosions may trigger the rupture of seismic faults and mimic a natural earthquake. Moreover, multiple nuclear explosions can be spatially arranged (on a vertical line for instance) and temporally synchronized in order to reduce significantly the P-waves (except inside both spherical cones along the vertical line arrangement). A Specific Magnitude Budget, with the relevant elementary approximations, is relatively enough accurate to compare unambiguously the energy of the stress-drop from the fault rupture and the energy of the radiated seismic waves. Indeed, for the largest natural earthquakes ($M_wgeq 8.0$), we define very conservatively their average seismic radiation efficiency to $0.5$. The natural seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $0.124$ and $0.569$ around the average $0.294$ (the natural Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta_{nat}^{min} M_Z=-0.604$ and $Delta_{nat}^{max} M_Z=-0.163$ around the average $Delta_{nat}^{mean} M_Z=-0.354$). On the other hand, the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $1.297$ and $1~218$ around the average $95.4$ (the nuclear Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta^{min}_{nuc} M_Z=0.075$ and $Delta^{max}_{nuc} M_Z=2.057$ around the average $Delta_{nuc}^{mean} M_Z=1.320$). In practice, the natural seismic radiation efficiency is always $2.302times$ smaller than the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency (an artificial Specific Magnitude Budget gap of $Delta_{gap} M_Z=0.241$). Indeed, to provoke a more powerful stress-drop from the fault rupture with multiple underground explosions, an accurate information about the future epicenters should be known which is impossible in practice. Lowering too much the energy of the multiple underground nuclear explosions would also increase the risk of not triggering at all the fault rupture.
Category: Geophysics

One Procedure for Determining the Astronomical Azimuth of a Direction

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French

This note, written after my participation in 1982 in the astronomical campaign for observations of 8 Laplace points, presents the procedure for determining the astronomical azimuth of a direction by observing the pole star, notingthe time of its observation, i.e. the so-called time method.
Category: Geophysics

Geodesy Practical Work: Reduction of Astronomical Observations at the North Pole

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French

During astronomical observations, we refer to the instantaneous North Pole. The observations had to be corrected to transfer them to the conventional pole.
Category: Geophysics

Theory of Surfaces: Application To The Equipotential Surfaces of The Normal Field of Gravity

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 6 Pages. In French

Recently, in an article, we reviewed some models of equipotential surfaces of the normal field of gravity relative to the Earth. In this note, we will apply the important theorems of surface theory to the surface obtained from the second model whose normal gravitational field is given by:$$ U= frac{Gm}{r}+frac{1}{2}omega^2left(x^2+y^2ight) $$
Category: Geophysics

Note About The Equipotential Surface of The Normal Gravity Field U=U_0

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 12 Pages. In French

The object of this note is to present the equation of the surface which defines the equipotential field of gravity $U=U_0$ for certain models of the normal potential of gravity $U$.
Category: Geophysics

In Support of Iron-Hydride and Nickel-Hydride in Earth’s Inner Core

Authors: Jeffrey Joseph Wolynski
Comments: 2 Pages. 3 references

According to the General Theory of Stellar Metamorphosis, planet formation is stellar evolution. This means all properties of planets are a direct result of the conditions present when they were younger stars and their orbits around other hosts. The Earth’s inner iron core is less dense than its outer core due to being bombarded with iron/nickel from outer space, as it was composed of liquid metallic hydrogen, which formed a bond with the iron and nickel, forming iron and nickel hydride. Drawing from this hypothesis, the zone with which the inner iron core’s density changes (becomes denser in the outer iron core), is a clue to when the majority of the hydrogen could no longer form bonds with the iron/nickel. This in turn can be used to explain how, why and when the pressures changed during iron core formation, due to both evaporation of the hydrogen due to mass loss of the star and chemical factors. That in turn can tell us how thick the atmosphere was during this transitional stage, and give far more information than is what made possible with the iron-catastrophe hypothesis.
Category: Geophysics

An Additional Note On Least Squares Method

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 14 Pages. In French

In this additional note on least squares, we will come back to a few theorems of the theory of errors and that of least squares which are not well enough known even among geodesists. This is due to the absence of documentation in French on the subject. It is thanks to a work of the Russian school, of the mathematician Yori Vladimirovich LINNIK (1915-1972) on the theory of least squares, published in French in 1963 which I was inspired to write this note.
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_supplement 1 to the Geophysical Evidence (Part 6b)

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 10 Pages. 1 diagram

This is a supplement document to my Summary of geophysical evidence for the Ø 1270x950km Permian Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater (see Part 6b of my hypothesis).The purpose of this document is to point-out the main geo-physical features visible on our planet Earth, that were directly caused by the Permian Triassic Impact Event.Further I want to inform about two other possible impact-structures on Earth, which I believe are a result of the global PT-Impact Event too. The first structure seems to be a "smaller-twin" of the PT-Impact Crater. It is the Tarim Basin in NW-China. The Kunlun Mountains around it indicate an formation-age of 250 Ma !The Tarim Basin has an approximate elliptical shape with the dimensions of ≈900x400 km (see page 7-8). This basin probably was formed by a second impactor that impacted in-line with the main-impactor which has caused the PT-Impact crater. The 900x400km elliptical Tarim-Basin probably had a shorter elliptical outline of around 750x500km shortly after the PT-Impact, but was then deformed later.If we use a double-oblique elliptical impact-crater-twin on Mars as a reference, then the Tarim-Basin-Impact was caused by a similar effect as the smaller oblique impact crater of the Mars-Impact, which is located in-line with the bigger oblique impact crater but a bit uprange (ahead) of the main-impact-crater.In the NASA-study about this double-oblique impact on Mars, as reason for this double-impact, the probable collapse (break-up into pieces) of the impactor shortly before the impact was mentioned. This collapse of the impactor just before the impact in all probability was caused by atmospheric effects (e.g. by the atmospheric impact-shock-wave which hit the impactor, and atmospheric drag etc.). Initial cracks inside the impactor probably already occurred when the impactor reached the "Roche-limit" of Mars (the point where gravitational forces start to rip the impactor apart). The other possible impact-structure which I want to describe is the 41x32km elliptical shaped F’derik Zouerate district Iron-ore mine in Mauretania (NW-Africa). see page 9. It is located in a dark colored area which contains Fe-rich minerals. This iron-rich area has an outline which can be fit precisely into an ellipse ! That‘s why I believe that this iron-rich area is the result of a secondary- or tertiary-impact in the PT-Ejecta Ray R1, which was caused by the PT-Impact Event and which runs along the NW-coast of Africa.
Category: Geophysics

Puzzling, Very Slow Oscillations of the Air Pressure in Europe

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 3 Pages.

If one compares long-term recordings of the air pressure measured by neighboring barometers, one observes synchronous oscillations at certain frequencies for which there is no known cause. Are they excited by gravitational waves?
Category: Geophysics

List of Documents Donated By Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 58 Pages. In Arabic, French and English. The documents can be consulted at the OTC library.

It is a list of documents donated by Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem, General Geographer Engineer retired from the textit{Office de la Topographie et du Cadastre de la Tunisie} (OTC) to the OTC library, August 2019. It is about 900 items. The fields of the documents are Mathematics, Physics, Geodesy, Cartography, Photogrammetry, Astronomy, Geophysics, Theory of the errors, Theory of the Least squares, Celestial Mechanics, Real Estate, Land Management, Languages, Divers,...
Category: Geophysics

The New Tunisian Triangulation -NTT- : The Decree of 10 February 2009

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem, Kamel Naouali
Comments: 8 Pages. In French. The paper was presented at the Scientific Symposium on " Buildings in Co-ownership’’ Tunis, 28-29 April 2009.

In this article, we detail the decree of February 10, 2009, which defines the New Tunisian Triangulation -NTT- consisting of the three basic foundations of topographic, cartographic, and geodetic work, namely:- The official terrestrial geodetic system of Tunisia.- The new cartographic mapping representation.- The general precision leveling network.Some historical elements are given to explain the necessity and the interest of this order.
Category: Geophysics

The Digital Level

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 8 Pages. In French

In this communication, we present the digital level. The principle of operation and measurements as well as the advantages of the digital level are detailed.
Category: Geophysics

Land Registration: Achievements and Future Prospects

Authors: Magtouf Rezgui, Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 39 Pages. In Arabic

We present the achievements and future prospects in terms of geodetic works and land registration (compulsory and optional) at the Office of Topography and Cartography of Tunisia (OTC)(October 2006).
Category: Geophysics

Transformation of Altitudes From One Geodetic System to Another

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 11 Pages. In French

With the introduction of GPS (Global Positioning System) technology, which provides the user with his three-dimensional (X,Y,Z) position in the global geocentric system called WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984), it is necessary to know the transformation of altitudes from the world geodetic system to the national or local geodetic system. We present below some models of transformations of passage of altitudes between geodetic systems.
Category: Geophysics

Some Problems of Geodesy for the Preparation for the Professional Competition for the Promotion to the Grade of Engineer Surveyor

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 9 Pages. In French

In this paper, we give some problems of geodesy for the preparation for the professional competition for the promotion to the grade of engineer surveyor (geodesy option).
Category: Geophysics

Synchronised Lightning

Authors: Remi Cornwall
Comments: 3 Pages.

This little study talks about good science methodology, rationality, plausibility and Okham’s Razor. Something more than a conjecture or even an hypothesis is developed to offer an explanation to the phenomenon of lightning strike synchronisation. An experiment is suggested to go a long way to proving the hypothesis, to the point of offering no other reasonable explanation.
Category: Geophysics

A Note on the Distortion in Length of the Tunisian Lambert Map Projection

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 6 Pages. In French

In this note, we study the variation of m the distortion in length in the function of the geodetic latitude phi of the Tunisian Lambert map projection.
Category: Geophysics

Sur L'Unification des Réseaux Géodésiques : Cas de la Société Nationale des Industries Minières de Mauritanie (SNIM)

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 17 Pages. In French.

This paper presents some solutions on how to unify the geodetic terrestrial networks established by the geometers of the National Mauritanian Society of the Mining Industries (SNIM).
Category: Geophysics

Tribute to The Memory of My Friend and Colleague Abdelkader Sellal, Engineer Geodesist (1946-2017)

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 104 Pages. In French

This document presents a tribute to the memory of my colleague and friend Abdelkader Sellal, a retired geodesist engineer from the Algerian Institute of Cartography and Remote Sensing. I published a report he had written in 2004 where he had proposed projects concerning the modernization of Algerian Geodesy in particular: - Establishment of a Network of Permanent GPS Stations and a Basic Geodetic Network.- GPS calculations. Re-Adjustment and redefinition of the Algerian national geodetic network using adjustment software.- Definition of a System and a Reference of Altitudes in Algeria.- The Geoid: Studies on the determination of a gravimetric geoid in Algeria.
Category: Geophysics

Зависимость числа землетрясений от положения Земли на орбите
The Dependence of the Number of Earthquakes on the Position of the Earth in Orbit

Authors: A. V. Antipin
Comments: 12 Pages. Это статья на РУССКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

В результаты обработки официального каталога РАН по землетрясениям за 28 лет (112 501 событий) обнаружено существование монотонной, ярко выраженной зависимости для суммарного ЧИСЛА землетрясений за полгода, в зависимости от положения Земли на орбите. Минимум приходится на период 05 июня … 04 декабря, максимум на период 05 декабря ... 04 июня. Разница числа событий составляет около 6% от максимума, равного 0.515. Ско – незначительно. Также, обнаружен 22 летний период изменения числа землетрясений.

The results of processing the official catalog of the Russian Academy of Sciences on earthquakes for 28 years (112 501 events) revealed the existence of a monotonous, pronounced dependence for the total number of earthquakes in six months, depending on the position of the Earth in orbit. The minimum falls on the period of June 05 ... December 04, the maximum for the period of December 05... June 04. The difference in the number of events is about 6% from the maximum. The maximum is 0.515. Mean square deviation – insignificant. Also, a 22-year period of change in the number of earthquakes was detected.
Category: Geophysics

Traces of the Permian-Triassic Impact Event Found on the Islands Mallorca and Sardinia, with Raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 29 Pages. 75 images, 25 diagrams, 3 tables

A few kilometers offshore of the eastern coast-line of Mallorca there is a distinct linear step visible on the ocean-floor topography. This linear step on the ocean-floor represents a linear fracture in Earth’s crust that was caused by the impact of ejecta-material, which was ejected by the 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater (PTI) along the PTI-Ejecta-Ray R1. Parallel to the mentioned linear step on the ocean-floor, more such linear fractures were caused by the impact of Ejecta-Ray R1, along the western side of Mallorca. These linear fractures and the impulse of the impacting PTI-ejecta-material have caused small crust-fragments which were inclined towards east. On their western side these crust-fragments were lifted upwards by the impact event, and in this way they formed the linear mountain-range Serra-de-Tramuntana on the island Mallorca, which runs all along the west-side of Mallorca in a NE- to SW-direction. The mentioned linear fractures are the cause for the later break-off of the islands Mallorca, Menorca and Ibiza from the spanish mainland. One particular deep fracture, in combination with the expansion-tectonics-process which was triggered by the PT-Impact Event, has caused this break-off-process. On the spanish mainland the range “Ports-de-Tortosa“, which has the same kind of linear structure and orientation as the Tramuntana Range, probably was formed in the same way. The impact of ejecta-material from Ejecta-Ray R1 has caused the same small crust-fragments, with an inclination towards east, which have formed this range. Originally the “Serra-de-Tramuntana“ and the “Ports-de-Tortosa“ laid side by side, before they drifted apart, caused by an expansion-tectonics-process, as my manipulated satellite image on the next page indicates. Additionally I found clear traces of the PT-Ejecta-Ray R1 on satellite images of the Island Sardinia. I analysed rock-samples from selected sample areas in the Tramuntana-Range with Micro-Raman-Spectroscopy, to find out if they were exposed to a shock-pressure which may indicate an Impact-Event. The Raman-spectra of quartz from the Sample Sites 6-A and 6-B indeed provided first evidence for an impact-event as the probable cause of the linear Tramuntana-Range. The clear shifts of the main Raman-peaks, of the analysed quartz samples, to the lower frequencies 463, 261, 204 and 126 cm-1 (Site 6-A, stone-1) and to 263 and 126 cm-1 (Site 6-B, stone-1) provide first proof for an Impact-Event ! Microscopic images of the analysed quartz grains may provide further proof for an impact-event.
Category: Geophysics

LG Space as Unified View of Imaging for Vertical and Lateral Geometric Complexity

Authors: August Lau, Alfonso Gonzalez
Comments: 4 Pages.

Seismic imaging is challenged by vertical complexity (denseness) of too many reflections and lateral complexity (roughness) of surfaces. The end members are usually sparse (easy for imaging) or fractal (too complex for imaging). Is there a more unifying concept that stands between very simple to very complex? We will present a unified view of geometric complexity by introducing the concept of LG (locally dense but globally sparse). LG is not as simple as sparsity (far apart) but not as complex as fractal (denseness). We will use 2 examples to illustrate the concept.
Category: Geophysics

The 15x11 km Anaga Crater on Tenerife (Canary Islands)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 37 pages, 80 images, 76 diagrams

A summary of the Raman-spectroscopic analysis of rock-samples which I have collected near the Ø 15 x 11 km “Anaga Impact Crater“ on Tenerife, and on other interesting sites on this Island. From the analysed feldspar-samples some samples may show Raman-spectra which indicate (W)-weakly-shocked or (M)-moderately-shocked Feldspar. But these Raman-spectra must be analysed by experts who have the experience to correctly assess such spectra. The Raman-spectra of the feldspar-samples from sites No.: 2, 5, 7, 9 & 58 may indicate shocked minerals. (an explanation to Raman spectra of shocked Alkali-Feldspar: see at page 30 in the Appendix_3). Minerals that were indicated by the Raman-spectroscopic analyses : Labradorite(2); Orthoclase(5); Augite, Titanite, Reyerite, Analcime(7); Annite, Augite(9); Anorthoclase(58) (->samples site No. in () Beside possible shocked minerals or minerals which may indicate an impact event, there definitely is one site on Tenerife that should be examined in more detail, in regards to the described impact event. This is sample-site 58, where an old-rock-island is located inside the large caldera of the Pico del Teide Volcano. This mass of old-rock probably was lifted by the impact or by the later volcano, from the original ancient ocean floor. Other interesting sites are located on the road along the ridge-top of the Anaga-Range, in the Teno-Mountain-Range and on site 10 which also belongs to the old basaltc shield of Tenerife. According to my hypothesis the hot spots which caused the Canary Islands originally were impact sites of large ejecta fragments, which were ejected from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea. And I am sure that these impact sites (hot spots) were produced by the same large-scale secondary impact event (caused by the PTI), which also has formed the "Bay of Lyon Crater" and other secondary-impact-structures in Spain. This large-scale impact event is visible on the Gravity-Anomaly Map of the Canarian Islands. The PT-Impact Event probably formed a large secondary-crater, the hypothetical Ø430x290km Gibraltar-Crater (GIC) (see gravity anomaly map). The oblique (ellipitical) impact-craters indicated on this Gravity-Anomaly-map, offshore of Tenerife, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, all belong to this impact-event and are located along the hypothetical crater-wall (-rim) of the GIC. A magnetic-anomaly-map of the Atlantic-Ocean-floor south-west of Spain provides indication for this Ø430x290 km Gibraltar Crater. (see the explanation on pages 28 & 29 of my PT-Impact-Hypothesis Part-2.
Category: Geophysics

The 20x15 km Tejeda Impact Crater on Gran Canaria (Canary Islands)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 31 pages, 84 images, 56 diagrams

This is a summary of the Raman-spectroscopic analysis a of rock-samples which I have collected near the Ø 20 x 15 km “Tejeda Impact Crater“ on Gran Canaria, and on other interesting sites on the Island. Some of the analysed feldspar-samples may show Raman-spectra which indicate (W)-weakly-shocked or (M)-moderately-shocked Feldspar. The Raman-spectra from the following sample sites No.: 15-A, 23, 28, 32 & 33 may indicate shocked feldspar-minerals. These Raman-spectra must be further analysed by experts with the experience to correctly assess such spectra. ( explanation to Raman-spectra of shocked Feldspar : see at page 30 in the Appendix 3 ) Beside possible shocked feldspar minerals other minerals, e.g. a number of iron-bearer-minerals found on the island, may also indicate an impact event. Different types of feldspar-breccia on sample site 32 and 34-B (on the west-coast), and rock-samples from the tip of the outflow-tongue from the Tejeda Crater, which contain iron-bearer minerals like Magnetite may provide the evidence for an impact event. Minerals found in the analyses : Albite, Anorthoclase, Augite, Corvusite, Coyoteite, Cronstedtite, Hollandite, Labradorite, Magnetite, Microcline, Oligoclase, Orthoclase, Tengerite, etc. According to my hypothesis the hot spots which caused the Canary Islands originally were impact sites of large ejecta fragments, which were ejected from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea. And I am sure that these impact sites (hot spots) were produced by the same large-scale secondary impact event (caused by the PTI), which also has formed the "Bay of Lyon Crater" and other secondary-impact-structures in Spain. This large-scale impact event is visible on the Gravity-Anomaly Map of the Canarian Islands. The PT-Impact Event probably formed a large secondary-crater, the hypothetical Ø430x290km Gibraltar-Crater (GIC) (see gravity anomaly map). The smaller oblique (ellipitical) impact-craters indicated on this Gravity-Anomaly-map, offshore of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and Tenerife, all belong to this impact-event and are located along the hypothetical crater-wall (-rim) of the GIC. A magnetic-anomaly-map of the Atlantic-Ocean-floor south-west of Spain provides indication for this Ø430x290km Gibraltar Crater. (see the explanation on pages 28 & 29 of my PT-Impact-Hypothesis Part-2.
Category: Geophysics

The 13.5x10 km Ajuy Impact Crater on Fuerteventura (Canary Islands)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 39 pages, 90 images, 90 diagrams

Here a summary of the Raman-spectroscopic analysis a of rock-samples which I have collected near the Ø13.5 x 10 km “Ajuy-Impact-Crater“ on Fuerteventura, and on other interesting sites on this Island. Some of the analysed feldspar-samples may show Raman-spectra which indicate (W)-weakly-shocked or (M)-moderately-shocked Alkali-Feldspar. These are feldspar-samples from the following sample-sites No.: 21-A, 35-A, 45-B, 45-D & 56-A (an explanation to Raman-spectra of shocked Alkali-Feldspar: see at page 38 in the Appendix-3) Beside possible shocked feldspar minerals other minerals found on the island may also indicate an impact event. On sample-site 35-A, a small rock island on the south-west coast of Fuerteventure, which probably represents ejecta-material of the Ajuy Crater, the mineral Uranpyrochlore was found. And on sampe-sites 45 & 48 fragments of old oceanic sediments (>100 Myr old !) embedded in magmatic rocks were found. This mix of magmatic-rocks and old Earth-crust-fragments may also be an indication for an impact event, because it seems to represent ejecta material from the Ajuy Crater. Further rare-earth metals are present in the described ejecta-impact-areas near Ajuy. Other minerals found in the analysis : Albite, Annite, Augite, Aegirine, Corvusite, Coronadite, Dolomite, Flourophlogopite, Kutnohorite, Labradorite, Reyerite, Siderite, Sonolite, Titanite, Tengerite etc. Please see also: Lanzarote Impact Event. (Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample-sites are in the Appendix at page 32) According to my hypothesis the hot spots which caused the Canary Islands originally were impact sites of large ejecta fragments, which were ejected from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea. And I am sure that these impact sites (hot spots) were produced by the same large-scale secondary impact event (caused by the PTI), which also has formed the "Bay of Lyon Crater" and other impact structures in Spain. This large-scale impact event is visible on the Gravity-Anomaly Map of the Canarian Islands. The PT-Impact Event probably formed a large secondary-crater, the hypothetical Ø430x290km Gibraltar-Crater (GIC) (see gravity anomaly map). The smaller oblique (ellipitical) impact-craters indicated on this Gravity-Anomaly-map, offshore of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and Tenerife, belong to this impact-event and are located along the hypothetical crater-wall (-rim) of the GIC. A magnetic-anomaly-map of the Atlantic-Ocean-floor south-west of Spain provides indication for this Ø430x290km Gibraltar Crater. (see the explanation on pages 28 & 29 of my PT-Impact-Hypothesis Part-2.
Category: Geophysics

The 12x9 km Tinajo Crater on Lanzarote (Canary Islands)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 18 pages, 43 images, 29 diagrams

Here a summary of the Raman-spectroscopic analysis of rock-samples which I have collected near the possible Ø 12 x 9 km “Tinajo Impact Crater“ on Lanzarote, and on other interesting sites on the Island. A feldspar-sample collected on the sample site 65, that is close to the center of the hypothetical impact crater, may show a Raman-spectra which indicates (W) weakly-shocked feldspar. (an explanation to Raman spectra of shocked Alkali-Feldspar: see at page 17 in the Appendix 3). Minerals found in the analyses: Labradorite, Apatite-(Ca-F), Nepheline or Dachiardite-Ca, Forsterite, Reyerite, Dolomite or Rosasite, Kutnohorite or Calcite, Reynersonite(?). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 12). According to my hypothesis the hot spots which caused the Canary Islands originally were impact sites of large ejecta fragments, which were ejected from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea. And I am sure that these impact sites ( hot spots ) were produced by the same large-scale secondary impact event ( caused by the PTI ), which also has formed the "Bay of Lyon Crater" and other impact structures in Spain. However in all collected rock samples no quartz was found. This makes it difficult to provide evidence for this secondary impact of the PTI. The Gravity Anomaly Map of the Canarian Islands indicates a large scale Impact Event. This impact event probably was the result of Ejecta from the PTI (Permian Triassic Impact) which formed a large secondary crater, the hypothetical Ø430x290 km Gibraltar Crater (GIC). (see gravity anomaly map on the next page). The smaller oblique (ellipitical) impact craters indicated on this Gravity Anomaly map, offshore of the Islands Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and Teneriffa, belong to this impact event and are located along the hypothetical crater-wall (-rim) of the GIC. A magnetic anomaly map of the Atlantic Ocean-floor south-west of Spain provides indication for this Ø430x290 km Gibraltar Crater. (see the explanation on pages 28 & 29 of my PT Impact Hypothesis Part 2.
Category: Geophysics

Note on the Plane Oblique Mercator Representation

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 6 Pages. In French

In this paper about the oblique Mercator representation, we present the calculation of the geographical coordinates $(\Phi,\Lm)$ images of the coordinates $(\fii,\lm)$ of a point on the sphere. We have added some exercises.
Category: Geophysics

Note on Laborde Plane Representation Used In Madagascar

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 33 Pages. In French.

In this first paper, we present the plane representation of Laborde applied to Madagascar. We come back to the formulas and the mathematical details from the source document namely fascicle n°4 of the "Treaty of Projections of Geographical Maps, for the Use of Cartographers and Geodesists ", published in 1926, by L. Driencourt and J. Laborde. We have used modern language for certain old expressions cited in the source document.
Category: Geophysics

Impact-Area of Ejecta-Rays from the Port Hedland Crater or from the VLC, Located Near Kalgoorlie (Western Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 29 pages, 75 images, 34 diagrams

The Gravity Anomaly Map indicates that Ejecta-material from the Ø400x350km Port Hedland Crater or from the Victoria-Lake Crater (VLC) in East-Africa probably impacted in the Kalgoorlie-area and formed the noticable linear structures. The Port Hedland Crater and the Victoria Lake Crater (VLC), which are both unknown craters yet, in all probability are large secondary-craters that were caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact Event (PTI). The geological map shows large-scale structures (linear- & bow-shaped structures) in the Kalgoorlie-area which have strong similarities to structures caused by ejecta-blankets (-lobes) originating from an Impact-Crater. These structures consist of rock-types different to the rock-types of the surrounding plains of the Yilgarn Craton. Compare these structures to the ejecta-rays (-lobes) from the Graterri-Crater on Mars ! These ejecta-ray-structures penetrate the Yilgarn-Craton approximately down to a depth of 10 km ! In the Kalgoorlie area the Super-Pit gold-mine is located. The Gold and other rare- & heavy-elements found in the area surely were ingredients of the PT-Impactor (an asteroid or comet), the origin of the ejecta that impacted here. I have collected some rock-samples from these ejecta-ray- (lobe-) structures in the Kalgoorlie area and have analysed these samples, mostly quartz, with Micro-Raman-Spectroscopy, to find out if they were exposed to a shock-pressure which may indicate an Impact Event. And indeed that precisely is the case ! The Raman-spectra of quartz from the Sample Sites 2, 4, 5, 13, 21, 27 & 31 provide first evidence for an Impact Event as the probable cause of these Ejecat-ray- (lobe-) structures in the Kalgoorlie Area. So far the samples from the Klagoorlie-area provided the best evidence for an Ejecta-Impact area !! The following shifts of the main Raman-peaks, of the analysed quartz grains, to lower frequencies (which all indicate an impact shock event) were measured : 462, 261, 204 & 125 cm-1 (Site 2_stone_1); 463, 260 & 205 (Site 2_stone 2); 463,260,204 (Site-4); 463,260/266 (Site 5); 463,261,125 (Site-21); 463,261,205,125 (Site-27); 463,257/267,204,125 (Site-31); 260,126 (Site-5_stone_2) & 204, 126 cm-1 (Site-13). Microscopic images of a number of analysed quartz grains will provide further proof for a shock event ! PDFs (planar deformation features) seem to be present in some samples ! (see images on pages 4 to 17). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman-Microscope. Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 18.
Category: Geophysics

Impact-Area of an Ejecta-Ray from the Port Hedland Crater or from the VLC , Located Near Geraldton (Western Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 22 pages, 50 images, 26 diagrams

The visited area is located near the town Geraldton (Western Australia). The Gravity Anomaly Map indicates that Ejecta-material either from the assumed Ø400x350km Port Hedland Crater or from the Victoria-Lake Crater (E-Africa) in all probability impacted here and formed these linear structures. The Port Hedland Crater is located north of the town Port Hedland on the sea-floor of the Indian Ocean. The Port Hedland Crater and the Victoria-Lake Crater (VLC), which are both unknown craters yet, in all probability are large secondary craters that were caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact Event (PTI). The geological map shows large-scale structures that have strong similarities to structures caused by ejecta-blankets which were produced by an impact. These structures consist of rock types that are different to the rock types of the surrounding plains of the Yilgarn-Craton. The nearly linear ejecta-ray structures seem to have penetrated the Yilgarn-Craton approximately up to a depth of around 10km (see geologic cross-section B-C). I have collected some rock-samples from these nearly linear structures in the Geraldton-area and have analysed these samples, mostly quartz, with Micro-Raman-Spectroscopy, to find out if they were exposed to a shock-pressure which may indicate an Impact Event. And indeed that is the case ! The Raman-spectra of quartz from the Sample Sites 11, 12 and 17 provide first evidence for an impact event as the probable cause of the linear ray-structure in the visited area. Indication for an impact shock event comes also from the sites 23 and 24. The clear shifts of the main Raman peaks, of the analysed quartz samples, to the lower frequencies 461 and 126 cm-1 (Site 11, stone 2), to 463, 262/268 and 125 cm-1 (Site 17, stone 1), to 463 and 125 cm-1 (Site 11, stone 1), to 260/265, 125 cm-1 (Site 17, stone 2) and to 261 and 126 cm-1 (Site 12) provide first proof for an Impact Event as the cause of the ray-structure visible on a gravity-anomaly- and on a geological map ! Microscopic images of some analysed quartz grains seem to provide further proof for a shock event. PDFs (planar deformation features) seem to be present in some samples (see images on pages 3 to 14). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman-Microscope. Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 21.
Category: Geophysics

Impact-Area of the Ejecta-Ray R4 from the PT-Impact Crater, Located Near Margaret River (Western Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 22 pages, 60 images, 28 diagrams

The visited area is located along the west-coast of SW-Australia near the town Margaret River. The Gravity Anomaly Map indicates that along this section of the coast the massive Ejecta-Ray R4 (caused by the Permian-Triassic-Crater) impacted in a very short distance and formed this coast-line. According to my Permian-Triassic Impact (PTI) Hypothesis this powerful Ejecta-Ray R4, which probably was caused by the leading-edge of the right ejecta-wing of the PTI, cut through Earth’s crust and in that way it separated (cut-off) the Australian Plate and the Indian Plate, from the African Plate. In the classic plate tectonics theory this would mean: Ejecta-Ray R4 was a (the) major cause of the break-up of Pangea ! After the PTI-Impact Event, the Australian Plate and the Indian Plate slowly drifted away from the African Plate in eastern- & north-eastern direction, as the ocean-floor-age map indicates. For a detailed description of the Permian-Triassic Impact (PTI) Hypothesis please read Part 1 of my PTI-hypothesis. I have collected some rock-samples along the coast-line in the Margaret River area, which is located close to the original course of Eject-Ray R4. Therefore shock-metamorpic effects caused by Ejecta-Ray R4 should be present in rocks from this coastal-area, which are older than 250 myr. And indeed they are ! The Raman spectra of quartz from the sample-sites 2, 4, 5 and 7-B collected along the coast in the Margaret River area provide first evidence for an impact (shock) event caused by Ejecta-Ray R4. The shifts of the main Raman peaks, of analysed quartz from sample-site 5, to the lower frequencies 463, 258/264, 126 cm-1 is a clear indication for an impact shock-event. Further indication comes from analysed quartz-grains from the sample-sites 2, 4 and 7-B which show shifts of main Raman-peaks to the lower frequencies 204, 125 cm-1 ; 261, 125 cm-1 and 260/267, 126 cm-1 and 263, 126 cm-1. Further indication comes from Microscopic images of quartz from sample site 7-B (from Cape Leeuwin) which seems to indicate PDFs (planar deformation features), see microscopic-Images on page 7 & 10. Microscopic images of analysed quartz grains from the sites 2, 4 and 5 may provide further proof (pages 3 to 11). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman-Microscope. Images of the analysed rock-samples and photos of the sample-sites: see Appendix 1, page 16. References: see page 22
Category: Geophysics

Impact-Area of an Ejecta-Ray from the Port Hedland Crater, Located Near Southern-Cross (Western Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 26 pages, 64 images, 32 diagrams

The visited area is located near the small town Southern-Cross in Western-Australia. The Gravity Anomaly Map indicates that Ejecta-material from the assumed Ø400x350km Port-Hedland Crater (Impact) in all probability impacted here and formed these linear structures (ejecta-rays). The Port Hedland Crater is located north of the town Port Hedland on the sea-floor of the Indian Ocean. The Port Hedland Crater, which is unknown yet, in all probability is a large secondary crater caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact Event. Another possible source of the linear ejecta rays could be the Victoria Lake Impact (see map on next page). For a detailed description of the Permian-Triassic Impact (PTI) Hypothesis please read Part 1 of my hypothesis. The geological map identifies the nearly linear structures as structures (low mountain ranges) which consist of different rock types than the surrounding plains of the Yilgarn Craton. These linear structures seem to penetrate the Yilgarn Craton down to a depth of around 6 km (see geologic cross-section A-B). I have collected some rock-samples from these nearly linear structures in the Southern-Cross area and have analysed these samples, mostly quartz, with Micro-Raman-Spectroscopy, to find out if they were exposed to a shock pressure which may indicate an Impact Event. And indeed that exactly seems to be the case ! The Raman-spectra of quartz from the Sample Sites 1, 9, 16 & 18 provide first evidence for an impact event as the probable cause of the linear ray-structure in the Southern-Cross area. The clear shifts of the main Raman peaks, of the analysed quartz samples, to the lower frequencies 463, 261, 204 and 126 cm-1 (Site 1), to 463, 261 and 205 cm-1 (Site 9 & 16) and to 463, 261, 204 and 125 cm-1 (Site 18) provide first proof for an Impact Event as the cause of the linear ray-structure ! Microscopic images of some analysed quartz grains seem to provide further proof for a shock event. PDFs (planar deformation features) seem to be present in some samples (images on pages 4 to 11). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 18. References: see page 26, and pages 14-16, 20-21 & 24-27 of Part1 of my hypothesis.
Category: Geophysics

The 50km 3-Gyr Archean Impact Crater in NW-Australia (Pilbara Craton)_raman-Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 25 pages, 62 images . 31diagrams

The 50km Archean Impact Crater with an age of >3 Gyr is located 150km SE of Port-Hedland on the Pilbara Craton near Marble Bar/Western-Australia. The impact-structure is noticeable on a magnetic-anomaly map and on a contrast-enhanced satellite map. It is a yet unknown impact structure ! This impact crater is very interesting, especially for Astrobiologists, because some of the earliest life-forms on Earth developed inside the crater-area after the impact ! The Dresser- and Strelley-Pool- Formations inside the crater contain some of the oldest fosselized Stromatolites on Earth ! I have analysed some rock-samples which I have collected along a mainroad which passes the crater just outside its northern crater-rim-area (samples No: 14 to 21). Note that the original crater-wall was later deformed by an (expansion) tectonic process that obviously was caused by the impact. And the impact in all probability was an oblique impact, which means the impactor impacted in a relatively shallow angle of ≤30°. Because of the oblique impact and the tectonic-process, fragments of the original crater-wall ended up further north close to the road were I collected the samples. Therefore the collected samples probably originate from the elevated crater-rim area. The Raman spectra of quartz from the sample-sites 14, 16, 18 and 21-A collected along the main-road provide first evidence for an impact (shock) event as the probable cause of the described structure. The shifts of the main Raman peaks, of analysed quartz grains from these sites, to the lower frequencies 463, 259/266, 125 cm-1 and 463, 262, 125 and 463, 263, 204 and 463, 263, 126 are a clear first indication for an impact shock event that has caused a shock pressure of around 22 GPa ! Further indication comes from the Raman-spectrum of quartz from sample-site 23 collected near the small town Marble Bar, that originates from the western crater-rim-area of the impact crater, which also shows clear shifts of the main Raman peaks to the lower frequencies : 463, 262, 204 and 125 cm-1 Microscopic images of some of the analysed quartz grains may provide further proof for a shock-event. (see Images on pages: 6,7,9,10,11 and 13). Images of the analysed rock-samples and photos of the sample-sites are in the Appendix at page 18. References: see page 25
Category: Geophysics

Study and Analysis of The Tunisian Terrestrial Primordial Geodetic Network

Authors: Alain Fontaine, Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 5 Pages. In French

It is a summary of the 4 notes written by Engineer A. Fontaine, from the French National Geographic Institute, about the analysis of the Tunisian Primordial Terrestrial Geodetic Network concerning its orientation and scale. This investigation was realized during the period June 1987- January 1988.
Category: Geophysics

The New Tunisian Triangulation

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 30 Pages. In French.

Tunisian geodesy has known a multitude of geodetic systems giving different coordinates. On the occasion of the unification of these systems into a new system called "The New Tunisian Triangulation - NTT", we have written these notes for the attention of the technical assistants of the OTC to prepare them for the use of the new system and above all the question of switching from existing systems to the new NTT system.
Category: Geophysics

The Unification of the Tunisian Terrestrial Geodetic Networks and the Establishment of a New Plane Representation Explanatory Statement

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 27 Pages. In French.

This report is a new version of that of 2008. It is a statement of the reasons concerning the unification of the Tunisian terrestrial geodetic systems to meet the needs of the cartographic, topographic works and the installation of the geographical and cadastral information systems.
Category: Geophysics

What Is the Noosphere (in Russian)

Authors: V. A. Kasimov
Comments: 30 Pages.

In a storm and a thunderstorm, the Noosphere will be born, in the destruction of wars and famine, the manifestation of our Planet as a whole will be expressed for the first time and will be the first manifestation of the transition from the Biosphere to the Noosphere, in which Humanity will become a powerful geological force, where its thought, consciousness, mind can geologically manifest itself. V.I. Vernadsky

В буре и грозе родится Ноосфкра, в уничтожении войн и голода впервые выразится проявление нашей Планеты как целого и будет первым проявлением перехода из Биосферы в Ноосферу, в которой Человечество станет мощьной геологической силой, где сможет геологически проявиться его мысль, сознание, разум. В.И. Вернадский
Category: Geophysics

Notions of The Theory of Errors For The Technical Assistants

Authors: Magtouf Rezgui, Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 27 Pages. In French.

In this fascicle, we give some elements of the Theory of Errors for Technical Assistants working in the field of surveying and topography.
Category: Geophysics

Once Again About the Noosphere

Authors: V. A. Kasimov
Comments: 6 Pages. [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form]

We would like to briefly stop and rethink the noospheric aspects in connection with the situation of the transition of the biosphere into the noosphere and, first of all, in connection with the world perception dualism: freedom and necessity.

Хотелось бы кратко остановиться и переосмыслить ноосферные аспекты в связи с ситуацией перехода биосферы в ноосферу и, в первую очередь, в связи с мировоззренческим дуализмом: свобода и необходимость.
Category: Geophysics

A Course of Mathematical Cartography For Engineers

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem, Jean Commiot
Comments: 216 Pages. In French. Comments welcome.

This monograph presents a course of mathematical cartography for engineers including essentially the following elements: - the definitions of characteristic terms, - the types of plane cartographic representations or "projections", - some known examples, - and a set of problems and exercises for the reader.
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_summary of the Geophysical Evidence

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 17 pages, 80 images, 4 diagrams

This is a summary of geophysical evidence for the Ø1270x950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact-Crater which I have discovered and described in my hypothesis Part 1-6. A topographic map and a satellite image of the Arctic Ocean area, Alaska and Siberia provided the first indication for the PT-Impact Crater and –impact event. The similarities of structures visible on the topographic map to the structures calculated by a computer simulation of a shallow (oblique) impact with an impact angle of 5°, provide a strong indication for the existence of the Ø1270x950 km PT-Impact-Crater on the Arctic Ocean floor. Especially the elliptical deep sea basin in the Arctic Ocean, the bow-shaped Brooks Range in Alaska and the northern edge of the Central Siberian Plateau (Siberian Traps), which has the same bow-wave-structure like the calculated structure, are strong indicators that the PT-Impact Crater was caused by a shallow impact of an asteroid or comet. Further strong indication for the PT-Impact-Crater comes from a gravity anomaly map and from a magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area and Alaska. The gravity anomaly map clearly shows sections of the elliptical crater-wall of the PT-Impact Crater (positive anomalies) . The Brooks Range in Alaska, which originally was part of the elliptical crater-wall-structure, is also indicated by a positive anomaly on the map. This section drifted away from the PT-Crater, caused by forces of the massive amount of ejecta material that was ejected from the crater, which probably was in the range of 100.000.000 to 200.000.000 km^3 of ejecta-material ! The magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area shows a triangular-shaped positive anomaly (red), which originates in the crater center. This indicates ejecta that was coming from an iron-rich impactor. The big distance between the elliptical impact basin and the described bow-wave-shaped structure in Siberia, which originally was located directly at the front-end of the PT-Crater, is the result of a divergent tectonic motion and expansion tectonics process that was triggered by the shallow PT-impact. The leading edges (front edges) of the two gigantic ejecta wings which were caused by the PT-Impact, cut through Earth’s crust and large amounts of impactor material (e.g. iron) and ejecta material descended into Earth’s mantle and caused the Pacific-LLSVP and the African-LLSVP. All volcanos of the Pacific Fire Ring and volcanism on Earth can be explained solely by the PT-Impact !
Category: Geophysics

Theory of Errors For The Technicians - Notions of The Least Squares Method

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem, Chedly Fezzani
Comments: 93 Pages. In French.

In this booklet, we give elements of the theory of Errors and notions of the Least Squares method for technicians working in the field of topography, geodesy and geomatics.
Category: Geophysics

The History of The Astronomical Campaign of Laplace Geodetic Points

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 17 Pages. In French.

In this note, we will describe the history of the astronomical observations and those of the measurements of the bases of the eight triangles of the Primordial Tunisian Geodetic Network carried out in 1982 in the framework of the works of the modernization of the Tunisian Geodesy started by the Office of Topography and Cartography (OTC).
Category: Geophysics

The Ejecta Ray from the 420km Southern Ocean Crater (West-Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 35 pages, 68 images, 50 diagrams

The linear Fraser Range in Western Australia seems to be the result of an ejecta ray that was ejected from the Ø 420 km Southern-Ocean-Crater. Different geophysical maps indicate this impact crater on the floor of the Southern Ocean, which I think is a secondary crater of the Permian Triassic Impact Event. The best indication comes from a magnetic anomaly map of the ocean floor which shows a precise semi-circular anomaly (see map below). Further indicaten comes from a combination of a gravity anomaly map of Australia and a topographic map of Antarctica. The visible bow-shaped structures indicate an impact crater of up to Ø 420 km. To provide first evidence for this impact crater I collected rock samples from the linear Fraser Range, which I believe was caused by a massive ejecta ray from this crater ( see maps below ). With a Raman microscope I analysed rock samples which I collected in the Fraser Range. The Raman spectra of quartz grains from the sample sites 50, 52 and 55 provide first indication for a shock event, the impact of an ejecta ray from the Southern Ocean Crater, which probably formed the Fraser Range. The shifts of two main Raman peaks of the analysed quartz grains from sample site 55 (Stone 1) to the lower frequencies 263 and 205 cm-1 and to 261/264 and 205 cm-1, and the shifts of two main Raman peaks in the quartz grains from sample site 50 (Stone 2) to the lower frequencies 204 and 124 cm-1 and to 260/265 and 204 (200,209) cm-1 ( double peaks ), and similar shifts in samples from site 52, which are visible in the Raman Spectra provide a first indication that the quartz from these sample sites was exposed to a shock pressure in the range of 20 - 22 GPa. ( see diagram in Appendix at page 34). Microscopic images of some analysed quartz grains from site 50, 52 & 55 may provide further proof for a shock event ( see pages 7-9, 14 & 21 ) The rock material from sample sites 50 and 55 may provide further evidence for the ejecta ray theory. On site 55 the rock consists of glass-like material that contains pipe-shaped bubbles filled with air (gas). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1)
Category: Geophysics

The 8 X 7 km Elliptical Warwick Impact Crater (East-Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 29 pages, 56 images, 33 diagrams

The Ø 8 x 7 km elliptical Warwick Crater is located in East-Australia 150 km south-west of Brisbane, near the town Warwick. The crater is visible on the Magnetic Intensity Map as a precise elliptical structure. This elliptical ring structure indicates an oblique impact crater. This means the impactor arrived in a very shallow angle of probably < 10°. The orientation of the elliptical ring structure corresponds to the orientation of the assumed ejecta blanket. The age of the oblique impact in all probability is 252 Ma. ( PT-boundary age ). The red- and pink colored rock types on the geological map, which present ejecta of the crater, formed 230-250 Ma ago ! The impact direction of the elliptical Warwick Crater points towards the Cape York Crater (-chain ). Therefore the Ø 8 x 7 km Warwick Crater probably was caused by a large ejecta fragment of the Cape York Impact Event. I have analysed some rock samples which I have collected inside the Ø 8 x 7 km elliptical Warwick Crater. The Raman spectrum of quartz from sample site 43 provides first evidence for an impact shock event as the probable cause of the elliptical ring structure of the Warwick Crater. The shifts of the main Raman peaks, of the analysed quartz, to the lower frequencies 463 and 204 cm-1, provide indication for an impact shock event that caused a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. Further indication comes from the Raman spectra of quartz grains from sample site 53 which show shifts of the main Raman peaks to the lower frequencies 263 and 205 ( 204 ) cm-1 , and from Raman spectra of sample site 51 and 54, which show shifts of the main Raman peaks of the analysed quartz grains to the lower frequencies 263 and 205 cm-1 , to 260 and 126 cm-1 and to 262 (265) and 204 (207) cm-1, indicating a shock pressure of 20-22 GPa. Microscopic images of some of the analysed quartz grains may provide further proof for a shock event ( see pages : 7, 11, 12 and 22 ). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 23. More images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at
Category: Geophysics

Earth's Mass Overestimated (Additional Suggestions 1)

Authors: Edgars Alksnis
Comments: 7 Pages.

Taking into account public interest in topic, I will criticize heavy Earth concept here more broadly. This results in indigestible mix of astrophysics, celestial mechanics, history of solar system, planetary science, geochemistry, geology, magnetism, seismology, and so on. Hydrogen and hydrous Earth concepts get some points.
Category: Geophysics

The EQUATION  Earth Gravity & the Great Pyramid of Giza

Authors: Jean Seimple
Comments: 69 Pages.

We will demonstrate that the gravitational characteristics of the Earth conducive to the emergence of life as we know it, appear indisputably in the dimensions of the Great Pyramid of Giza and that these same dimensions are linked to a very simple, unique, and magnificent equation. That the anomaly observed of 6° of the orbit of the Earth with the the plane of the equator of the sun is engraved deeply inside the architecture of the Great Pyramid and that it is as well the reason for the divergence between the flattening factors of the Earth. Factors defined by : 1- Its theoretical value 2- Its measured dimensions 3- Satellite measurements. Finally, we will show that this equation allowed us to determine the fundamental forms of G and c, as well as new fundamental formulas.
Category: Geophysics

The 40 X 33 km Elliptical Pilbara Crater Near Port Hedland (NW-Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 20 pages, 33 images, 28 diagrams [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form]

Raman spectra of quartz samples collected at the sample sites 25, 11 and 10 provide first evidence for this 40 x 33 km elliptical Impact Crater and for the secondary impact-structures produced by this crater The impact crater is located near Port Hedland in Western Australia. Because of the ellipical shape of the crater it is the result of an oblique impact. That means the impactor which formed the crater impacted in a very shallow angle of probably less then 10°. Because of the shallow impact angle, fragments of the impactor were ejected from the crater and caused complex secondary impact structures 40 km and 80 km further east of this elliptical crater. One of the secondary impact structures is Mount Goldsworthy which contained the world’s richest deposits of ferrous (iron)-ore with a share of up to 68 % iron. Beside the Raman spectra which I present as evidence and first verification for this elliptical crater and its secondary impact structures, there is additional geo-physical evidence provided from a magnetic anomaly map, which clearly indicates the elliptical crater, including a center-line structure in the crater, and which shows the secondary impact structures in detail. The shifts of the main Raman peaks to the lower frequencies 463, 261, 198/205 and 125 cm-1 in a quartz sample from the sample site 25 ( Stone 2 ), which was collected inside the crater area, clearly indicates that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. ( see explanation at page 19 ). Further evidence for an impact event is provided by quartz samples from sample sites 10 & 11 which are located in the area of the secondary impact-structure Mt Goldsworthy. These quartz samples show shifts of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 463, 260, 204 and 126 cm-1 which also indicates a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. Further evidence comes from a microscopic image of sample 25 (stone 3) which indicates planar deformtion features (PDFs). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1) Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 17. Images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at [Truncated by viXra Admin]
Category: Geophysics

The 30 km Mount Warning Impact Crater and the 1.5 km Impact Crater in East-Australia_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 18 pages, 33 images, 20 diagrams [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form]

Raman spectra of quartz from the sample sites 8-B2, 8-B3 and 15-B and 15-C provide evidence for an impact scenario in the Mt Warning area in East-Australia. The Ø 30 km crater-shaped Mt Warning area and a smaller ≈ Ø 1.5 km circular crater structure, which is located directly near the crater-rim of the Mt Warning Crater, seem to belong to a large-scale impact event caused by the Ø 320 km Cape York Crater in NE-Australia à see : The 320 km Cape York Crater (link2) & Evidence for the Cape York Crater (link4). The possible Ø320 km Cape York Crater belongs to a Secondary Impact Crater Chain along the NE-coast of Australia which was caused by ejecta from the Ø 1270 x 950 km Permian Triassic Crater in the Arctic Sea According to the current geological theory Mount Warning is a strongly erroded shield volcano. Refering to my Permian-Triassic Impact Hypothesis Mt Warning is the result of an impact of a big ejecta fragment from the Cape York Crater or from the PT-Impact Crater, which caused this Ø 30 km secondary crater that fractured Earth’s crust and resulted in the growth of a large shield volcano above the crater à see my Permian Triassic Impact Hypothesis : Part 1 (P1), Part 2 (P2) & Part 5 (P5) à Mars Impacts ! The Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 8-B2, on the foot of the crater-wall on the outside of the smaller Ø 1.5 km circular crater structure, provides first evidence for an impact event ! ( see Appendix ) The shifts of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 463, 260, 205 and 127 cm-1 which are visible in the Raman Spectra of the quartz-sample, clearly indicate that the quartz from this site was exposed to a shock pressure of around 20 - 22 GPa. ( à see explanation in the Appendix at page 17 ). The spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1) [Truncated by viXra Admin]
Category: Geophysics

The 160 km Salerno Impact Crater ( Italy )_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 29 pages, 53 images, 41 diagrams [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form]

Raman spectra of quartz samples collected at sample site 21 near Ascea on the west-coast of Italy ( near Sapri ) provide first indication for the 160 km Salerno Impact Crater described in my hypothesis. The yet unknown 160 km “Salerno Crater“ belongs to a larger Secondary Impact Crater Chain, which was caused by impacting ejecta material that was ejected by the 1270 x 950 km Permian Triassic Impact Crater (PTI), located in the Arctic Sea near Alaska, according to my hypothesis. The samples which I collected to proof the “Salerno Crater“ did not provide the same clear evidence for a secondary impact crater, as for example the samples from Cabo de Creus in Spain, which provided solid evidence for the 130 x 110 km „Bay of Lyon Impact Crater“, that belongs to the same Secondary Impact Crater Chain as the “Salerno Crater“, caused by the PT Impact-Event. But the Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 21 at least provide a first indication for a shock event. The shifts of the main Raman bands (peaks) to the lower frequencies 261, 204 and 125 cm-1 ( Stone 1 ) and to 260 and 205 cm-1 ( Stone 2 ) which are visible in the Raman Spectra of these quartz-samples from sample site 21 at least give a first indication that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure in the range of 20 - 22 GPa. The shock pressure probably was just below the treshold of 22 GPa so that the main quartz line at 464 didn’t shift to a lower frequency ( see explanation in the Appendix at page 28 ) Quartz in the samples from the sample site 20 also show shifts in one or two of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 263 and 205 cm-1. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1) [Truncated by viXra Admin]
Category: Geophysics

The 130x110 km Bay-of-Lyon Impact Crater (France) Raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 17 pages, 35 images, 20 diagrams

Raman spectra of quartz samples collected at sample site 27-B near Cabo de Creus ( “Cape de Creus“ ) at the Bay of Lyon in NE-Spain provide strong evidence for the 130 x 110 km elliptical Impact Crater described in my hypothesis, which is responsible for the formation of the semi-circular Bay of Lyon. The yet unknow 130 x 110 km “Bay of Lyon“ Impact Crater (BLC) belongs to a larger Secondary Impact Crater Chain, which was caused by impacting ejecta material that was ejected by the 1270 x 950 km Permian Triassic Impact Crater (PTI), located in the Arctic Sea near Alaska, according to my hypothesis. Beside the Raman spectra which I present as evidence and first verification for the existence of the impact crater, there is additional geo-physical evidence from gravity anomaly- and magnetic anomaly maps, which both show a strong anomaly in the center of the assumed 130 x 110 km impact crater. The Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 27-B provide strong evidence for an Impact Event ! Sample Site 27-B is the closest sample site in relation to the assumed center of the 130 x 110 km Crater. It is located on the last remaining (small) section of the crater-rim of the “Bay of Lyon“ Crater directly near the lighthouse at Cabo de Creus ( “Cape de Creus“ ). The whole rest of the 130 x 110 km Crater is located on the ocean floor of the Mediterranean Sea. The shifts of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 461 and 125 cm-1 ( Stone 6 ) and to 463, 261, 205 and 125 cm-1 ( Stone 3 ) and to 463 and 260 cm-1 ( Stone 2 ) which are visible in the Raman Spectra of these three quartz-samples from sample site 27-B, clearly indicate that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure in the range of 22 – 24 GPa. ( see explanation in the Appendix at page 16 ). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 13. Images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at [truncated by viXra Admin]
Category: Geophysics

A 30 km Impact Structure and a 1.6 X 1.2 km Elliptical Impact Crater in Southern Spain Raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 25 pages, 41 images, 29 diagrams

Raman spectra of samples taken from the sample sites 50, 30 and 19 provide evidence that the large bow-shaped structure visible on the satellite image ( see image below ) was caused by an impact event. This bow-shaped structure diameter approx. 30 km belongs to a large-scale impact event which according to my hypothesis was caused by ( impacting ) ejecta material from the Permian Triassic Crater in the Arctic Sea The bow-shaped impact structure is located near Puerto de Mazarron in the state of Murcia in Andalucia. This impact structure belongs to large Secondary Crater Chain of the PT-Impact Event. Further evidence for the large-scale impact event in Southern Spain comes from rock-samples collected in a small elliptical Crater with 1.6 x 1.2 km near the town of Rodalquilar. This elliptical crater in the remote East of Andalucia, which belongs to the assumed large-scale impact event in Southern Spain, has the potential to provide precise evidence for my hypothesis, because it provides the precise trajectory and impact angle of the impactor (  ejecta from the P/T-Crater ) ! The Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 50 on the outside of the crater-wall of the bow-shaped impact structure ( near the tunnel exit of the AP7 ) provides clear evidence for an impact event ! The shift of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 463, 261, 205 and 127 cm-1 which is visible in the Raman Spectra of the quartz-sample, clearly indicates that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. ( see explanation in the Appendix at page 24 ). Similar shifts of the Raman bands are visible in the spectra of samples 19 & 30 from the center of the structure The spectra of the quartz sample 40-B from the center of the 1.6 x 1.2 km elliptical Crater shows similar shifts of the Raman bands, e.g. the measured bands at 463, 261/263, 203 and 127 cm-1, which also indicate a shock pressure of approx. 22 GPa that can only be the result of an impact event ! All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 19. Images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at A shock pressure of 22 GPa far exceeds every pressure caused by normal terrestrial metamorphism. Therefore the quartz was clearly shocked by an impact event. The indicated shock pressure of 22 GPa is lower than the shock pressure that occured in other large impact craters on Earth, which can reach 100 GPa. This indicates that the bow-shaped structure was caused by an oblique impact That means the impactor which formed the struture ( ejecta of the PT-Crater ) impacted in a very shallow angle. The same is true for the yet unknown Ø 1.6 x 1.2 km elliptical Impact Crater near Rodalquilar.
Category: Geophysics

The 320 km Cape York Impact Crater in ne-Australia Raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 31 pages, 50 images, 41 diagrams

Raman spectra of quartz from the sample sites 46, 49, 50 and 60 provide evidence that the large 320 km circular structure that is visible on gravity anomaly maps, just off the coast of the Cape York Peninsula in the North-East of Australia, was caused by an impact event ! The 320 km yet unknow Cape York Crater (CYC) belongs to a large Secondary Impact Crater Chain, which was caused by impacting ejecta material, which was ejected by the 1270 x 950 km Permian Triassic Impact Crater (PTI), located in the Arctic Sea near Alaska, according to my hypothesis. This Secondary Impact Crater Chain of the PT-Impact Event formed the North-East Coast of Australia. It was caused by at least three to four large Secondary Impact Craters resulting from the PT-Impact. The Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 46 provides the clearest evidence for an impact event ! Sample Site 46 is the closest sample site in relation to the 320 km Cape York Crater that I could reach. It is located approximately 75 km away from the crater-rim of the Cape York Crater. The shift of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 463, 261, 203 and 126 cm-1 which is visible in the Raman Spectra of the quartz-sample, clearly indicates that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. The spectra of the quartz from sample site 50 also provides evidence for the large-scale impact event. It shows similar shifts of the Raman bands of the quartz to the lower frequencies 263, 204/205 and 127 cm-1, which indicates a shock pressure of 20 - 22 GPa which is the result of an impact event ! From quartz samples of sample sites 49 (Black Mountains) and 60 ( both around 180 km from the crater rim ) further indication is provided for a large-scale secondary impact event. However the evidence provided by the Raman spectra is weaker than from the samples from site 46 and 50. Here the shifts of the Raman bands (peaks) to 263 and 204/205 provide indication for a shock pressure of around 20 GPa. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1) See explanation and references in the Appendix at page 30 & 31. [Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words – Please conform!)
Category: Geophysics

Geometry of the Ellipse and the Ellipsoid

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 24 Pages.

It is a chapter that concerns the geometry of the ellipse and the ellipsoid of revolution. We give the formulas of the 2D plane coordinates and the 3D Cartesian coordinates $(X,Y,Z)$ in function of the geodetic coordinates $(\varphi,\lm,he)$. A section is devoted to the geodesic lines of the ellipsoid of revolution. We give the proofs of the differential equations of the geodesic lines and their integration.
Category: Geophysics

Note on Compensation for Precision Leveling Networks

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 9 Pages. In French.

In this article, we present some elements on the mode of the adjustment of the closure correction in precision levelling networks.
Category: Geophysics

Supercontinent Pangeon Obscura: Contrasting Secular Geophysics with Theological Ratiocinations

Authors: Richard L Amoroso
Comments: 14 Pages. Preprint: Submitted to Scientific God Journal; https://www.scigod.com/index.php/sgj, 4-2021.

Before geologist E. Suess scientifically proposed a supercontinent he named Gondwanaland in 1885, over 3,300 years earlier, around 1450 BC, Moses wrote of a supercontinent in the Book of Genesis regarding division of Earth at the time of Peleg, “for in his days was the earth divided” (Gen. 10:25). The next step, the first sufficiently detailed and comprehensive theory of continental drift proposed in 1912 by meteorologist A. Wegener, postulated from geologic and paleontological data, that most geologic time had only one continent, which he called Pangea. Using the seven contemporary continents as puzzle pieces, geophysicists have proposed four versions of a Peleg-like Pangea supercontinent. Utilizing additional theological insights, in conjunction with the Hand of God putatively driving the evolution of continental drift, a 5th global supercontinent Pangeon Obscura is proposed, illustrating how Jerusalem (Israel) and Zion (New Jerusalem on the American continent) will merge to occupy the same location by the end of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic Millennium.
Category: Geophysics

Mineralogical and Geological Evidence for the Permian-Triassic Impact Event

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 8 pages, 30 figures

With this part of my study I want to present mineralogical evidence for my Permian Triassic Impact Hypothesis. I will do this with the help of rock samples and with the description of selected sample sites, where I have found impact breccia and impact-effected rock. In this provisional edition of Part 6, I present rock samples and evidence from five selected Secondary Craters of the PT-Impact which I have discovered, and where I believe Impact Breccia and impact-effected rock is present on certain sample sites. I have discovered other secondary craters which I will describe in an upgraded edition in a few weeks, together with a more detailed analysis of selected rock samples. You can find images of all collected Rock Samples and of the visited Sample Sites on the following website : www.permiantriassic.de The detailed description of the Permian Triassic (PT)-Impact Event, which formed the Ø 1270 x 950 km PT-Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea, and which produced hundreds of secondary-craters and –impact structures worldwide, can be found in Part 1 of my study. In the Parts 1 to 4 of my study I have described my Permian Triassic Impact Hypothesis mainly with the help of structural evidence, especially with the help of secondary impact-craters and –structures, found on topographic maps & satellite images, and on gravity-anomaly- & magnetic-anomaly maps. But in order to really proof and confirm my hypothesis there is geological-, geophysical- and mineralogical evidence required ! Because I have just started to analyze the most interesting rock samples of the many hundreds of samples, which I have collected over the last eight years, I can only present visual assessed mineralogical evidence at the moment, in order to proof the described Impact Craters. Please note that the Craters which I described in the Parts 1 to 4 of my hypothesis (study) are all still unknown to the geological society ! The reason for that is simple ! These craters are all "Secondary Craters of the PT-Impact Event" ! , which were caused by ejecta material from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Artic Sea. These mostly elliptical secondary craters were formed by impactors (ejecta from the PT-Crater), which had low impact velocities of < 8 km/s, and which impacted in shallow angles of < 10° , and therefore only caused a low impact pressure of < 5 GPa in most of the ejecta material and impact-effected rock. This makes it difficult to find impact markers like impact-breccia, impact-glass, PDFs in minerals etc. ! To find impact markers for the PT-Impact Crater and for other big secondary craters please read this : Recommended sites to proof the PT-Crater & other Secondary Craters
Category: Geophysics

Effect of Particle Trapping on Frost Heaving Soils

Authors: Stephen Peppin
Comments: 18 Pages.

A model of freezing soils is developed that accounts for the dependence of the frost heave rate on particle trapping. At high cooling rates ice lenses start to engulf the soil particles and the rate of segregation heave is reduced. At the highest freezing rates all particles are engulfed by the ice and the pore water freezes \emph{in situ}. A new kinetic expression for the segregation potential of the soil is obtained that accounts for particle trapping. Using this expression a simple transient frost heave model is developed and compared with experimental data.
Category: Geophysics

An Equi-dimensional Finite Element Approach for Flow Problems in Fractured Porous Media

Authors: Marco Favino, Maria Giuseppina Chiara Nestola
Comments: 12 Pages. Eccomas 2020 - proceedings

We propose a novel approach for flow simulations in fractured porous media based on an equi-dimensional representation of the fractures and a standard continuous finite element (FE) method. We employ an adaptive mesh refinement strategy to automatically adjust an initial regular mesh to any fracture distribution with a desired accuracy. The proposed approach is easily implementable in any FE software, does not involve the coupling of different discretizations, and provides symmetric and positive definite stiffness matrices. We provide a systematic vali- dation of our method and we show that it can be used to simulate fluid flow for fracture networks of realistic complexity.
Category: Geophysics

Expanding Earth, Semi-Aquatic Dinosaurs, Earth Atmosphere in 3-5 Bar, Exoplanets and Stellar Metamorphosis

Authors: Jeffrey Joseph Wolynski
Comments: 3 Pages.

Some information is tied together regarding expanding Earth, stellar metamorphosis, semi-aquatic dinosaurs, exoplanets, Earth’s atmosphere and the idea that the Earth was covered by large shallow seas at one point in its evolution. This is to tie together some really big ideas which make more sense than currently taught plate tectonics, nebular hypothesis, land dinosaur theory, and the idea that Earth has remained this way almost its entire existence.
Category: Geophysics

Vorbereitung Der Daten Von Supraleitenden Gravimetern Für Untersuchungen im Frequenzbereich um 100 µHz (Preparation of Data from Superconducting Gravimeters for Investigations in the Frequency Range Around 100 µHz)

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 3 Pages. [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the rules anf guidelines of viXra.org]

Signale unbekannter Herkunft kann man in den Gravitationsdaten der SG nur entdecken, nachdem die störenden Gezeitenoszillationen beseitigt sind. Das Verfahren der in­versen FFT-Filterung kann im Gegensatz zu den üblichen Hochpassfiltern die riesigen Unter­schiede der Amplituden ohne Zusatzrauschen verarbeiten. Das Verfahren wird ausführlich beschrieben. (Signals of unknown origin can be detected in the SG gravity data only after the interfering tidal oscillations are removed. The inverse FFT filtering method, unlike the usual high-pass filters, can handle the huge differences in amplitudes without additional noise. The procedure is described in detail.)
Category: Geophysics

Preparation of Data from Superconducting Gravimeters for Investigations in the Frequency Range Around 100 µHz

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 3 Pages.

Signals of unknown origin can be detected in the SG gravity data only after the interfering tidal oscillations are removed. The inverse FFT filtering method, unlike the usual high-pass filters, can handle the huge differences in amplitudes without additional noise. The procedure is described in detail.
Category: Geophysics

Note On The Tolerance of The Closure of The Angles of A Triangle

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 6 Pages. In French.

In this note, we give the expression of the tolerance of the closure of the horizontal angles of a plane triangle and its numerical estimation for an equilateral triangle.
Category: Geophysics

The 50 km Archean Impact Crater ( Age >3 ga ) in the Pilbara Craton ( Australia ) – a Place Where Life on Earth Started

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 12 Pages. 50 figures , 1 diagram

The magnetic-anomaly- and gravity anomaly- map and geological maps indicate a very old 50 km Impact Crater in the Pilbara Craton near Marble Bar / Western Australia. This impact crater (structure) was formed by a large asteroid or comet(-fragment) which impacted in the Pilbara Craton ( Western Australia) approx 3 -3.5 billion years (Ga) ago. The impact structure, which probably is connected to the Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB) Impact Event which happened 3.26 - 3.24 Ga ago in South-Africa, may be responsible for the development of some of the first life-forms on Earth approximately 3.25 Ga ago ! The Geologist Andrew Y. Glikson pointed out, that there seems to be a clear correlation between the Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB) Impact event 3.26 – 3.24 Ga ago in South-Africa and stratigraphic units of the same age in the Pilbara Craton in West-Australia. Both impact events, the Impact Event in the Pilbara Craton / West-Australia and the BGB Impact Event in the Kaapvaal Craton in South-Africa happened at the same time ! It is possible that both impact events were caused by the same impactor, probably a large carbon-rich Comet. This comet probably collapsed just before the impact, and its fragments then formed the BGB impact structure and the Ø 50 km Pilbara Impact Crater structure described in this study, which later led to the Strelley Pool Chert (stromatolite carbonate platform). The development of the oldest known Stromatolites, that were found close to the two impact sites, in all probability was a longterm result of these two impacts and the organic- material which arrived together with the impactor ( comet ) fragments ! Water which ascended from Earth’s mantle after the impact may have contributed to life development. There are only around 20 documented varieties of stromatolites for the period 2.8 - 3.25 billion years ago. The oldest 3.25 Ga Stromatolites are found in the Hooggenoeg Formation ( Buck Ridge ) / South Africa near the BGB Impact Structure and in the Dresser Formation / West Australia, less than 30 km away from each of the two impact sites ! [Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words]
Category: Geophysics

The 450 x 380 km Bengal Bay Crater in India

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 8 Pages. 36 figures

Bengal Bay at the center of India’s east coast was formed by an elliptical Impact Crater with the dimensions of ≈ 450 x 380 km. This is indicated by gravitational anomaly- and magnetic anomaly-maps and by satellite- and topographic-maps. The remaining NW-section of the identified Bengal Bay Impact Crater located on the Indian Plate, and the SE-section of the 400 x 350 km elliptical Port Headland Crater located on the ocean-floor in the NW of the Australian Plate probably belong to the same Impact Crater which caused a massive fracture in Earth’s crust and separated India from Australia ≈ 200-250 million years ago. The assumed trajectory of the Ø 20 to 40 km impactor, which produced this large Impact Crater, indicates that this crater in all probability is a large secondary crater which was caused by the Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event in Siberia 253 million years ago. The impactor probably was a fragment of the asteroid or comet which caused the PT- Impact Crater. This is indicated by the iron-rich ejecta and ejecta rich in platinum-group elements that was ejected by the Bengal Bay- / Port Headland- Crater and which impacted on the Yilgarn Craton and Pilbara Craton in West-Australia, as traces on the gravity anomaly map indicate. Satellite images of India provide further evidence for this assumption. The linear western border of the Indian Plate was caused by the powerful Ejecta Ray R4 of the Permian Triassic Impact Event. Within this assumed Ejecta Ray R4 two more secondary craters of the PT-Impact Event are located. These are the two impact craters R4/8 with Ø 120 km, and the smaller Mumbai Crater with Ø 25 km ( see images on page 5 & 6 ). There is strong indication that the Iron-Ore Deposits around Sandur (India) were caused by ejecta material which was ejected by the Mumbai Impact Crater. And the impactor which formed the Mumbai Crater also seems to be a fragment of the original PT-impactor. This is indicated by the 30 km long “drop-shaped” mountain range near Sandur which contains the Sandur Iron-Ore Deposits, and by the orientation of this enormous drop-shaped ejecta-impact-structure. [Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words]
Category: Geophysics

A Complex 30 km Secondary Impact Crater in the Pilbara Region in West-Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 15 pages, 23 figures

The magnetic anomaly map, satellite images and geological maps indicate a Ø 40 x 33 km elliptical Impact Crater and complex impact structures caused by this crater, near Port Headland ( in the Pilbara Craton / West-Australia ). This elliptical Impact Crater probably was formed by a large secondary impactor ( ejecta material ) which was ejected by another larger secondary Crater, in all probability caused by the Permian-Triassic (PT)- Impact Event 253 Ma ago, near Onslow, a town on the NW-coast. The larger secondary Crater near Onslow probably also caused the Iron-ore rich Hammersley Range in Western Australia. The Ø 40 x 33 km elliptical impact crater near Port Headland shows a distinct center-line on the magnetic anomaly map, which is a clear indication for an oblique impact. That means the impactor which formed the elliptical crater impacted in a very shallow angle of probably less than 15 degrees. Further along the trajectory of the impactor, complex impact structures were formed by the ejecta material that was ejected from the Ø 40 x 33 km elliptical Impact Crater. These impact structures are good visible on the satellite images. Near the Goldsworthy Iron-ore mine there are two areas are noticeable where ejecta material impacted on the ground and then slipped along the surface in a precise linear direction. On one of the final resting places of the ejecta material the Mount Goldsworthy Iron Ore Mine deposits were formed, which contained the world’s richest deposits of ferrous (iron)-ore. The high-grade iron-ore veins of this mine ran deep and were graded as high as 68 % ! Another interesting impact structure which was caused by impacting ejecta material, that was ejected from the elliptical crater, is a complex cascade-shaped impact structure. The magnetic anomaly map provides the best overview of this cascade-shaped impact structure, which also was caused by iron-rich ejecta material. For more information to the Permian-Triassic Impact Event 253 Ma ago, please see my other studies on www.vixra.org ( see weblinks under References on the last page ).
Category: Geophysics

The 320 km Cape York Impact Crater and the Cape York Crater Chain in North-East Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 13 Pages. 62 figures

The gravity anomaly map of Australia shows traces of a Ø 320 km Impact Crater east of the Cape York Peninsula. This Impact Crater probably belongs to an impact crater-chain of at least three large craters in the 200 – 300 km diameter range. That is indicated by different gravity anomaly maps and topographic maps. The assumed crater chain in all probability represents a secondary crater chain that was caused by the giant 1270 x 960 km Permian Triassic Crater around 253 million years ago. A manipulated gravity anomaly map, where New Guinea was rotated by 45 degree and moved close to the NE-coast of Australia, seems to confirm that this impact event separated New Guinea from the Australian Plate. New Zealand probably was cut-off from the Australian Plate by the same Impact Event. The impact crater chain caused the initial crack, and the later massive outflow of magma from the Cape York Crater was a driver of the separation of New Guinea and New Zealand from Australia. The traces of this assumed outflow of magma from the Cape York Crater (CYC) are clearly visible on the gravity anomaly map and topographic map. Another indication for the assumed Impact Crater Chain comes from the triangular shape of the Gulf of Carpentaria in the North of Australia, which probably was formed by the ejecta of another 300 km crater that belongs to the CY-Impact Crater Chain. The image of an impact crater on planet Pluto shows a nearly identical triangular ejecta-impact- structure, which I consider as a first proof for my assumption. The massive and powerful magma outflow from the Cape York Crater produced two “magma flows”, which are responsible for the ocean floor relief in the NE of Australia. The magma flowing out of the Cape York Crater seems to have caused a large magma enclosure, which not only finalized the break-off of New Guinea and New Zealand from Australia, but in all probability also caused a gigantic flood-event when it finally collapsed. The geological record indicates that this collapse probably happened around the Triassic-Jurrasic (T-J) boundary, maybe caused by extreme earthquakes that were triggered by the Congo Impact at the T-J boundary. [Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words]
Category: Geophysics

The 840 x 630 km Pantanal Impact Crater in South-America

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 4 pages, 11 figures

The large 840 x 630 km elliptical Pantanal Crater is easy visible on a Lithosphere-Thickness Map of South-America. A topographic map clearly shows a remaining crater-wall section of this gigantic impact crater. Further indication for the assumed impact crater can be found on a magnetic anomaly map of South America. The impact side is indicated by a red-colored flame-like feature on this map, which indicates the outflow of large amounts of magma from the original crater center. The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) may be the result of the Pantanal Impact. Because this flame-like feature appears two times on the magnetic anomaly map, the crater area probably was tectonically shifted away from the original impact side in the east, which then produced another outflow at a later time. The Pantanal Impact caused a large crack, visible on the Lithosphere-Thickness Map. Three other large Craters are visible on the different maps. These three craters are in the Ø 200-400 km diameter range. The large craters found on different maps of South-America in all probability are Secondary- Impact Craters which were caused by Ejecta Material from the Permian-Triassic (PT) Impact Event. During the Permian Triassic (PT)-Impact Event which formed the 1270 x 950 km elliptical PT-Impact Crater a large amount of rock-material was excavated from Earth’s crust. The impactor which caused the PT-Impact, was an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, which collided with our planet at a very shallow angle of probably less than 8°. Because of its enormous size, the Pantanal Crater may be the result of a large fragment of the PT-Impactor in the diameter range of 30-60 km which either was ejected from the PT-Crater, or which broke-off from the main impactor and travelled a bit further before it impacted in South-America.
Category: Geophysics

Global Impact Events Are the Cause for Plate Tectonics and the Formation of Continents and Oceans (Part 5)

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 41 Pages. 195 figures, 12 diagrams and tables

The 1270 x 950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater on the ocean floor of the Arctic Sea will confirm the hypothesis that Global Impact Events are the cause for plate tectonics or more precise the cause for a combination of plate tectonics and expansion tectonics ! The PT-Impact Crater in all probability was caused by a big comet or asteroid with a diameter of 60 to 200 km, and it probably collided with our planet at a very shallow angle of less than 8° near the North Pole, with an estimated low impact velocity of ≈ 8 km/s. A global fracture pattern on Earth’s crust was caused by this powerful impact and the ejecta of the impact, which mainly impacted in the form of powerful ejecta-rays and caused secondary-crater-chains with craters in the range of Ø100-300 km visible on different continents ! The most Impressive are the Ejecta-Rays 1 to 4 in Africa ( see Part 2 of study ) The sudden decompression of Earth’s mantle, caused by the PT-Impact, triggered an expansion process in the mantle, which was caused by volatiles like H2O, CO2 and SO2 in the mantle material. Earth’s mantle probably consisted of a partially differentiated mixture of rock and ice ( e.g. Ice-V to -XI ) at the time of the PT-Impact, similar to the mantle of Jupiter’s moon Callisto. The large amounts of molten crust (rock)-material, caused by the PTI, descended in Earth’s mantle and caused the African- and Pacific-LLSVP ( & ULVZ ) and in this way the volcanism on Earth for the last ≈250 Ma ! The PTI also started a plate tectonics process on the expanding Earth-mantle, which is still going on today. In the same way an Expansion-Tectonics- and Plate-Tectonics-process was triggered on Earth, it was initiated by an impact on other planets and moons of our Solar System as well ! There is evidence for other powerful Global Impact Events which occurred on the planets Venus, Mars and Pluto, and on Jupiter’s moon Ganymede, on Saturn’s moons Enceladus & Iapetus, and on Pluto’s moon Charon, and on our Moon. See description of the traces of these global impact events in this Study !There is evidence that these global impact events, which occurred on other planets and moons of our solar system, probably all took place within the last 300 million years! [Truncated by viXra Admin]
Category: Geophysics

The 1200 X 850 km Congo Impact Crater Has Formed the Congo Basin, Probably Around the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 4 pages, 10 figures

The gravity anomaly map of Africa shows a complex impact crater with the enormous dimensions of 1200 x 850 km. This impact crater, which is responsible for the Congo Basin, probably was formed by ≥ 40 fragments of a large asteroid or comet that broke to pieces just before impact. The gravity anomaly signature shows where many of the fragments impacted. The impactor-fragments probably had ≥ Ø 3 - 10 km each, and the original asteroid or comet probably had a diameter of ≈ 30 – 50 km, and it impacted in a shallow angle. This is indicated by the “drop-shape” of the whole impact area. The trajectory of the asteroid or comet had a north-west direction. The trajectory indicates that this impact probably wasn’t related to the PT-Impact. The acceleration of the North- & South-American-Plates towards North-West, which must have happened > 150 Ma ago, probably was initiated exactly at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary 200 Ma ago. In all probability the T/J-boundary was caused by the Congo Impact ! The Congo Impact transferred a very powerful impulse into the African Plate, which then passed this impulse to the North- & South-American-Plates. With a long delay of maybe 10 to 20 million years the North- & South-American-Plate probably began to slowly break-off and move away from the African Plate. The Congo Impact Impulse (CII) in this way may be responsible for the final break-up of Gondwana. The gravity anomaly map of Africa also shows the three powerful linear Ejecta Rays R2 - R4 ( secondary crater-chains ) which were caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact in Siberia. These Ejecta Rays R1 – R4 meet at the original PT- Impact Point. ( please see my studies Part 1 to 6 about the PT-Impact Event – see weblinks in References )
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event Caused Secondary-Craters and Impact Structures in India, South-America and Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 41 pages, 208 figures, 6 diagrams and tables

I will first give an overview of the Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event on the first pages, before I describe the Secondary-Craters and -Impact Structures of the PT-Impact. The section which describes the assumed secondary craters and impact structures in India, South-America & Australia that were caused by the PT-Impact Event starts at page 14. The impactor which caused the 1270 x 950 km elliptical PT-Impact Crater, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this very shallow impact angle of probably less than 8° and the estimated low impact velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with large fragments of the impactor, is the ejecta material that caused many large secondary craters & impact structures on Earth. The ejecta material probably had a velocity of less than 8 km/s at impact. The large secondary- impact craters and –structures found in India, South-America and Australia were caused by Ejecta Material that was produced during the Permian Triassic (PT)-Impact Event. A large fragment of the PT-Impactor, or of the ejected material, caused the 450 x 380 km Bengal Bay Crater (BBC) near the east-coast of India. The gravity anomaly map of India indicates the remaining NW-section of the crater-wall of this Crater, as well as a linear ejecta ray structure which formed the SE-coast of India. There are also other secondary impact structures of the PT-Impact Event visible on satellite maps of India. For example the 30 km drop-shaped impact structure that produced the Iron-Ore Deposits in Sandur. The 400 x 350 km Port Headland Crater near the NW-coast of Western Australia, clearly visible on the gravity anomaly map, may be identical to the Bengal Bay Crater in India and it may represent mainly the original SE-section of the BBC. This crater produced ejecta rays, rich in platinium group elements and gold, which impacted on the Yilgarn Craton Two more large Craters with Ø >300 km were found off the south-coast of West-Australia. And many secondary impact structures were found along the NE-coast of Australia which in all probability were caused by the Cape York crater-chain ( see Part 2 ). An exceptional large 840 x 630 km elliptical Crater, probably caused by the PT-Event, was found in South-America. This Crater formed the Pantanal plain and it probably is responsible for the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) around the Triassic/Jurassic boundary.
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event and its Importance for the World Economy and for the Exploration- and Mining-Industry

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 40 pages, 150 figures, 8 diagrams

The Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event 253 million years ago produced most mineral- & energy-resources worldwide ! The hard evidence for the correctness of this statement will be the confirmation of the 1270 x 950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater on the ocean floor of the Arctic Sea, as described in my study. The impactor which caused the PT-Impact Crater, was a comet or asteroid with a diameter of 60 to 200 km, that contained a high share of precious metals ( platinum group elements ) and many other elements. The asteroid or comet collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this very shallow impact angle of probably less than 8°, and an estimated low impact velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of un-melted material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with large fragments of the impactor in the 10 – 50 km diameter-range, rich in precious metals and iron, is the ejecta-material that caused many large secondary-craters and impact structures on Earth. First I give an overview of the PT-Impact Event, before I describe some selected secondary-craters and impact-structures caused by the PT-Impact, which produced many mineral- & energy-resources worldwide. The section which describes the most interesting secondary craters caused by the PT-Impact, starts then at page 17. There are at least 10 secondary-impact craters with diameters ≥ 250 km and around 60 secondary craters with diameters in the 100 – 150 km range visible on gravity- and magnetic-anomaly maps, and on topographic- and satellite-maps. Regarding un-explored mineral resources the most interesting secondary craters are certainly located within the massive tracks of the PT-ejecta rays R1 to R4, which are clearly visible on gravity anomaly maps of Northern-Africa. Especially the craters located within ejecta ray R4 should be very interesting for the oil-exploration industry ! Here new discoveries similar to the Ghawar oil-field in Saudi Arabia should be possible, which is also located within ejecta ray R4 and was caused by a >300 km crater ! Other interesting craters for exploration are the > 350 km Bengal Bay Crater (India), the Victoria Lake Crater & EIC and the Congo Crater in Africa, the Port Headland Crater and the Southern Ocean Craters in Australia, and the large Pantanal Crater in South-America ( see other parts of my study !)
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event Caused Secondary-Craters and Impact Structures in Europe, Africa and Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 45 Pages. 210 figures, 6 tables

I will first give an overview of the Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event on the first pages before I describe the Secondary-Craters and -Impact Structures of the PT-Impact. The section which describes the assumed secondary craters and impact structures in Europe, Africa & Australia that were caused by the PT-Impact Event starts at page 12. The large secondary- impact craters and –structures found in Australia, Europe and Africa were caused by Ejecta Material that was produced during the Permian Triassic (PT)-Impact Event in the Artic Sea which formed the 1270 x 950 km elliptical PT-Impact Crater. The impactor which caused the PT-Impact, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this very shallow impact angle of probably less than 8° and the estimated low impact velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with large fragments of the impactor, is the ejecta material that caused many large secondary craters & impact structures on Earth. It probably had a velocity of slightly less than 8 km/s. Some large fragments of the impactor or of the ejected material caused a secondary impact crater chain along the NE-coast of Australia. An exceptional large impact crater of this crater-chain, the > 300 km Cape York Crater caused a number of large-scale magma eruptions over a long time period, which were partly responsible for the creation of the Pacific Plate as described in more detail in Part 1 of my study. In Europe and Africa powerful Ejecta Rays from the PT-Impact Event caused further secondary impact crater chains with crater diameters of up to 200 km. The tracks of these crater chains are clearly visible on different gravity anomaly maps, which show the reduced thickness of Earth’s crust in these areas ( blue areas ). It is clearly visible that these tracks of the Ejecta Rays intersect at a certain point which was the impact location of the PT-Impact at the time of impact, in the North of Siberia. The outline of Italy is a direct result of these crater chains as my drawings indicate. [Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words]
Category: Geophysics

The 1270 X 950 km Permian-Triassic Impact Crater Caused Earth’s Plate Tectonics of the Last 250 ma

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 26 Pages. 120 figures, 1 table [Corrections are made by viXra Admin to comply with the rules of viXra.org]

There is evidence for an enormous elliptical impact crater with the dimensions of 1270 x 950 km in the ocean floor of the Arctic Ocean. This elliptical impact crater and the dynamic effects of the ejected material have formed the deep sea basin area below -3000m in the Beaufort Sea. The assumed impact crater seems to be responsible for the Permian-Triassic boundary ~253 million years ago, which has caused the biggest mass extinction in Earth’s history. This Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater was formed by an oblique impact. This means that the impactor, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle, of probably less than 8° , with a relative low impact velocity of around 8 km/s. A computer simulation shows a close correlation between the topography of the assumed P/T-Impact Crater and the topography of a simulated elliptical impact crater that was created under similar conditions. The PT-Impact Event caused a gigantic butter-fly shaped ejecta blanket which covered the majority of the northern- and southern hemisphere Within the boundaries of this ejecta blanket many large secondary impact craters were formed by the ejecta, with crater diameters of up to 450 km. Please also read Part 2 of my hypothesis, where I describe many of the secondary impact-craters and -structures in more detail, which were caused by the PT-Impact Event. In Europe probably up to 20 large secondary craters were caused. In India a secondary impactor produced a 450 x 380 km elliptical crater which formed the Bay of Bengal. A similar crater was caused off the NW-coast of Australia. In South-America a large 840 x 630 km was found. And in Africa four extensive impact crater chains were caused. The impulse of the PT-impact and the impulses of the ejecta and secondary crater impacts, which were produced by the ejecta material, caused a global fracture pattern on Earth’s crust that was the trigger for the break-up of Pangea and a global expansion-tectonic process which is still going on today. The topographic map and the ocean floor age map of the Pacific Plate provide further evidence of the PT-Impact Event and the resulting expansion tectonic process caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact Event.
Category: Geophysics

Geoid And Systems of Heights

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 14 Pages. In French.

In this paper, we give the different definition of heights and the corrected terms to take in consideration. An example is presented on how to correct a line of the spirit levelling by introducing gravity observations.
Category: Geophysics

Note on The Exploitation of The New Tunisian Primordial Geodetic Network

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 5 Pages. In French.

The purpose of this note is to give proposals for the methodology for using the new coordinates obtained following the completion of the calculations of the compensation for the new Tunisian terrestrial geodetic network called the Tunisian Terrestrial Primordial Geodetic Network (RGPTT).
Category: Geophysics

Study of Systematic Errors in the Combination of Doppler Data and Classical Terrestrial Observations

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 42 Pages. In French.

This paper concerns the study of systematic errors in the combination of Doppler data and classical terrestrial observations in the adjustment of geodetic networks. This study is taken from the thesis presented in October 1986 for obtaining the Civil Geographic Engineer diploma from the National School of Geographic Sciences (ENSG / IGN France).
Category: Geophysics

The Technical Procedures for the Execution of Co-owned Subdivisions in Tunisia

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 8 Pages. In French.

In this note, we present the technical procedures for the execution of co-owned subdivisions in Tunisia. We give all the details concerning the work in the office as well as those in the field.
Category: Geophysics

Retrieval of Case 2 Water Quality Parameters with Machine Learning

Authors: Ana B. Ruescas, Gonzalo Mateo-García, Gustau Camps-Valls, Martin Hieronymi
Comments: 8 Pages.

Water quality parameters are derived applying several machine learning regression methods on the Case2eXtreme dataset (C2X). The used data are based on Hydrolight in-water radiative transfer simulations at Sentinel-3 OLCI wavebands, and the application is done exclusively for absorbing waters with high concentrations of coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM). The regression approaches are: regularized linear, random forest, Kernel ridge, Gaussian process and support vector regressors. The validation is made with and an independent simulation dataset. A comparison with the OLCI Neural Network Swarm (ONSS) is made as well. The best approached is applied to a sample scene and compared with the standard OLCI product delivered by EUMETSAT/ESA.
Category: Geophysics

La Courbure Des Transformées Planes Conformes Des Géodésiques

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 4 Pages. In French.

In this paper, we give the formula of the curvature of the curve image, in the case of a conformal map projection, of geodesic curves of the ellipsoid as the model of the Earth. As an example, we consider the UTM map projection and we give the expression of the formula of the curvature.
Category: Geophysics

Characteristics of Geodetic Ellipsoids

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 4 Pages. In French.

The purpose of this note is to give the different characteristics of ellipsoids of revolution used as models of the Earth for the definition of geodetic systems in countries or on a global scale.
Category: Geophysics

Laplacian Closures Between the Astronomical Azimuths, the Bases Measured to Revalue the Tunisian Primordial Terrestrial Geodetic Network

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 8 Pages. In French [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form]

As part of the Tunisian Geodesy Upgrade project, we present in this report an investigation of the quality of our Tunisian Primordial Terrestrial Geodetic Network (RGPTT). On this subject, we present the study of Laplacian closures between the eight astronomical azimuths as well as the agreements between bases measured in 1982 during work to revalue the RGPTT object of agreement n°2916 between the OTC and the Institut Géographique National de France (IGNF). We give in part A the methodology followed, the results obtained and the conclusions. The part B of the investigation concerned the different calculations, is given in the full paper.
Category: Geophysics

Note on The Comparisons of Geodetic Azimuths of The Tunisian Primordial Geodetic Network

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. [Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form]

In this paper, we present some comparisons of geodetic azimuths obtained by GPS by classical geodesy and by astronomical observations (Laplace's points). The geodetic azimuths are calculated using 3D coordinates or by plane coordinates (Tunisian Lambert projection). The results obtained confirm that the orientation issued by GPS is identical to astronomical orientation which confirms also the orientation of the Tunisian Primordial Geodetic Network obtained by the definitive adjustment of the French Institut Geographique National in 1984.
Category: Geophysics

Calculus of Astronomic Latitude and Longitude Determined by Astronomic Observations Called "Equal Height"

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 8 Pages. In French.

In this paper, we present the calculus of astronomic latitude and longitude determined by astronomic observations method called "equal height". We give also the standard deviation of each unknowns.
Category: Geophysics

What Happened to Venus?

Authors: Clark M. Thomas
Comments: 12 Pages.

Venus is Earth’s near twin, but an objective comparison reveals dissimilarities greater than similarities. This astrobiology essay compares both planets’ paths, and suggests their futures. Life itself hangs in the balance.
Category: Geophysics

Why Did Earth’s Oceans Take 700 Million Years to Form?

Authors: Jeffrey Joseph Wolynski
Comments: 1 Page.

Earth is 4.5 billion years old. Earth’s oceans are 3.8 billion years old. Why did Earth’s oceans take 700 million years to form? The most obvious reason is that Earth was far too hot when it was young. Any water formed would have been immediately broken back up into hydrogen and oxygen plasma. More reasons are listed.
Category: Geophysics

On Hydrostatic Approximation by R.I. Nigmatulin and L.F. Richardson’s Equation

Authors: I.N. Sibgatullin
Comments: 4 Pages. The russian version of the comments on the paper https://doi.org/10.1134/S0015462818040201 , submitted to the same journlal as the original paper. The english version of the comments is available https://arxiv.org/abs/2001.08637

The theorem given in "Equations of Hydro-and Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere when Inertial Forces Are Small in Comparison with Gravity" (2018) is wrong. The scales given in the paper are not suitable for application of hydrostatic (quasistatic) approximation. The modification of Richardson's equation for vertical velocity by neglecting horizontal advection of pressure results in violation of symmetry of equations and incorrect uncompensated additional vertical velocity.
Category: Geophysics

Study on the Coastal Bathymetry Based on Sentinel-2 Satellite Image and Gebco Data

Authors: GyongBong Ju, UnChol RI, CholJu Kim, CholMin Won
Comments: 9 Pages.

This article proposes a new bathymetry in coastal areas based on multi-spectral satellite images (Sentinel-2 satellite images) and GEBCO (General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans) data. To measure the water depth of the coastal area, an empirical model has selected, and a new model has obtained by interpreting the relationship between each element of the model and the spectral band of the Sentinel-2 satellite image. Also, a sunlight reflection correction model has established to overcome the effect of sunlight reflection, one of the main factors that limit the accuracy of remotely sensed data. Linear regression analysis is performed between the results derived from the new model and the GEBCO data to determine the coefficients and then used the raster calculator to get the desired results. Field bathymetry data is expensive and difficult to obtain, but Sentinel-2 satellite images and GEBCO data can be downloaded for free from the website at any time. Therefore, it is easy to measure a wide range of coastal water depths in a short time using this method. The proposed bathymetry can quickly realize using QGIS spatial analysis tools.
Category: Geophysics

Gravity Killed the Dinosaurs

Authors: Seamus McCelt
Comments: 4 Pages.

Whenever the solar system passes through the galactic plane it picks-up an additional amount of dark matter. An increase in dark matter increases the strength of gravity. Increased gravity increases the weight of the dinosaurs and that kills-off the huge dinosaurs in stages. There might have been an asteroid impact. But that is NOT what killed the dinosaurs. There were multiple extinctions - millions of years apart - impact gets ruled out as the sole reason.
Category: Geophysics

Prognosis of Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions on Daily Indexes of Solar Activity for February 2020

Authors: A.m. Eigenson, I. B. Bazylevych
Comments: 1 Page.

This article provides a forecast of earthquakes
Category: Geophysics

Correlation of the Residual Charge of an Electrolytic Capacitor with the Earth's Magnetic Field

Authors: Evgeny Arsyukhin
Comments: 3 Pages.

The effect of the diurnal variation of the residual charge of the electrolytic capacitor is revealed. The change in voltage between the capacitor plates correlates with high accuracy with the daily change in the strength of the Earth’s calm magnetic field. We were unable to find a description of such an effect in the literature. It can be interesting for school teachers to organize simple experiments at school.
Category: Geophysics

Stability of Ice Lenses in Saline Soils

Authors: S. S. L. Peppin
Comments: 20 Pages.

A model of the growth of an ice lens in a saline porous medium is developed. At high lens growth rates the pore fluid becomes supercooled relative to its equilibrium Clapeyron temperature. Instability occurs when the supercooling increases with distance away from the ice lens. Solute diffusion in the pore fluid significantly enhances the instability. An expression for the segregation potential of the soil is obtained from the condition for marginal stability of the ice lens. The model is applied to a clayey silt and a glass powder medium, indicating parameter regimes where the ice lens stability is controlled by viscous flow or by solute diffusion. A mushy layer, composed of vertical ice veins and horizontal ice lenses, forms in the soil in response to the instability. A marginal equilibrium condition is used to estimate the segregated ice fraction in the mushy layer as a function of the freezing rate and salinity.
Category: Geophysics

What Are Volcanoes and Why do They Exist?

Authors: Jeffrey Joseph Wolynski
Comments: 3 Pages.

Geologists do not know what volcanoes are and why they exist on Earth. Now we can finally answer the basic questions with stellar metamorphosis. Volcanoes are composed of liquid rock escaping the surface, but why liquid rock? Why don't all the other rocky objects all have active volcanoes? Why are some worlds almost absent huge numbers of volcanoes? This paper addresses this.
Category: Geophysics

Fibonacci Relationship Between Longitude and Latitude Coordinates and Their Distance Correspondent in the Earth Sphere

Authors: Pedro Hugo García Peláez
Comments: 2 Pages.

It seems that Earth and probably other planets follow a Fibonacci relationship in their distances.
Category: Geophysics

Relación de Fibonacci Entre Coordenadas de Longitud Y Latitud Y su Correspondiene Distancia en la Esfera Terrestre

Authors: Pedro Hugo García Peláez
Comments: 2 Pages.

Parece que La Tierra y probablemente otros planetas siguen una relación de Fibonacci en sus distancias.
Category: Geophysics

Mont Blanc Climbing Accidents Planetary Connection

Authors: Edgars Alksnis
Comments: 4 Pages.

Geocosmic factors are clearly visible in "accidentology" of Mont Blanc climbing. Some could be forecasted in advance. Better early warning climate analysis system should be installed in order to cope with overcrowding of climbing route
Category: Geophysics

Why They Did not Return?

Authors: A.I.Somsikov
Comments: 2 Pages. -

Riddle of the depart cities
Category: Geophysics

On Newtonian Dynamics with a Variable Earth Mass: Geodetic Evidence and Its Implications on Pioneer Spacecraft Anomaly and Lageos Satellite

Authors: Victor Christianto, Florentin Smarandache
Comments: 9 Pages. This paper has not been submitted to a journal. Comments are welcome

The Earth expansion problem has attracted great interest, and recent study gives geodetic evidence that the Earth has been expanding, at least over the recent several decades. In the meantime, Jayant Narlikar & Halton Arp have argued on possible variable mass hypothesis cosmology (VMH). Therefore, in the present article discusses some interesting effects related to varying G, but here we argue that instead of varying G we can think of varying mass (M). Among other things we discuss receding planets from the Sun, calculation of Pioneer spacecraft anomaly as proposed by B.G. Sidharth, and also possible slight change in LAGEOS Satellite. Further observation to verify or refute this conjecture is recommended, especially based on geological evidence of expanding earth.
Category: Geophysics

The Earth Does Not Spin

Authors: Nathaniel Barker
Comments: 2 Pages.

Counterarguements are shown and disproven
Category: Geophysics

On the Restraint Mechanism Between the Earth and Moon

Authors: DING Jian
Comments: 8 Pages.

The moon always use the same side to face toward the earth, but there is a dead angle in the mainstream theory of explaining this phenomenon. That is, it cannot explain why the moon doesn't rotate around the axis which is a straight line to connect the mass centers of the earth and moon. Because the numerous meteorite impact craters on the lunar surface indicate that the moon is completely possible to obtain external momentums and rotate around this axis. This paper proposes a plain explanation, that is, the universal gravitation between the earth and moon as well as the earth's magnetic field have formed a trinity restraint mechanism on the moon. According to this explanation, the moon's rotation can be locked, and the mechanism of lunar libration has been revealed out, which can also confirm mutually with the natural phenomenon that the moon has sought a balance in the swing. In addition, with the help of all kinds of detection data from the Apollo moon landings and other circumlunar spacecraft, as well as the studies and analysis of lunar soil samples, the conclusion is that as far as a whole for the moon, it belongs to paramagnetic substances, and its relative permeability is between 1.008 and 1.03. Although the magnetic flux density of the earth on the lunar orbit has been dropped below 0.0008125 nT or lower due to the impact of the solar wind, but it can be used as a reason to lock the moon without rotating around the axis which is a straight line to connect the mass centers of the earth and moon. If another main reason to cause the existence of this fact cannot be found, even if the magnetic flux density of the geomagnetism in lunar orbit is very small, it also should not be artificially ignored. In this regard, we can artificially change the intensity of the earth's magnetic field, and carefully observe the lunar libration and in the distance between the earth and the moon, to verify the arguments in this paper.
Category: Geophysics

The Physics Behind Yellow Stone Volcano Eruption

Authors: B. Ravi Sankar
Comments: 5 Pages. 26-07 - 2026 is the judgement day. The Yellowstone volcano will erupt and the world will end. It is an apocalypse.

The physics behind any super volcano eruption is explained in this paper. It is to be noted that the physics behind the eruption is only explained here not the exact time of eruption. There exists a method called time series prediction in computer science algorithms and using modern day computers, one can predict the exact time of eruption provided the site earthquake/temperature/eruption history and which is beyond the scope of this paper. The spin velocity of earth at the equator is nowhere derived in the literature, but it is a measured quantity due to the spacecraft industry. In this paper, the spin velocity of earth at the equator is derived for the first time. The earth spin axis is tilted by 23.50 due to which we are having seasons. The tilted axis is not fixed or stationary. It precesses and makes a cone as viewed from north or south pole with a period of 26500 years. This precession is due to multi-body gravitational interaction in solar system which can be solved only numerically using modern day computers. Nutation is not considered in this paper. The precession of earth is opposite to the spin of of earth, due to which the earth de￾celerates. The deceleration is not a continuous function of time. It decelerates once in 26500 years. This deceleration causes energy to be accumulated beneath earth crust. An exact figure of how much energy the yellow stone volcano will erupt is given in joules. This ac￾cumulated energy erupts once in 26500 years and we call it as super volcano eruption. In the context of this paper it is yellow stone volcano located in USA. But geologists are claiming that a super volcano erupts only once in around 8 lakh years without proper scientific reasoning. Already due to global warming the yellow stone volcano had become active. The eruption can be prevented if we start producing food items like wheat,rice,apple etc. in factories. If we do that, farmlands can be planted with trees and hence a 20 centigrade reduction in temperature will prevent any volcano eruption. In order to produce crop items in factory, we need surplus of electric energy. This is possible if and only CERN achieves nuclear fusion reactions on a grand scale and also global scientist should come forward to work on pico-electronics to produce crops in factories. Otherwise it is going to be an apocalypse or doomsday/judgment day.
Category: Geophysics

The 3-rd Prognosis of Large Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions According Daily Indexes of Solar Activity

Authors: A.M.Eigenson, I.B.Bazylevych, M.S.Shevchenko
Comments: 1 Page.

Recently we have done two prognosis of earthquakes (EQ) and volcanic eruptions (VE) on daily indexes of solar activity [1,2]. Both these forecasting’s are just confirmed, and here we represent the next one. All these predictions have the basis in the investigation of the first as the authors [3,4]. These was shown that when solar activity curve begins go down, then in the vicinity of its minimum the EQ and VE occur with large probability. So, knowing the behavior of solar curve, one could make the corresponding prognosis. Our previous prognosis deals in the period of Spring 2019, and now we present the prediction for Summer, 2019. In Fig.1 we see that the evident minimum of W Number was on July, 27. So we prognose the new dangerous area would be between this date and July,11 (may be, even later). (Remark: earthquakes 6+ are noted as circle’s, earthquakes 7+ as ellipses)
Category: Geophysics

Geochronology and Movement of the Sun Around the Galaxy Center

Authors: V.F. Chekalev, E.V. Chekalev
Comments: 2 Pages.

The motion of Solar system round the Galaxy center is considered in this article. Joint use of geochronological and astronomical data allowed to determine parameters of galactic orbits of Solar system in the Phanerozoe. As a result of the analysis the duration of some geological periods are modified and the new geological period is entered. The future duration of the Quaternary period is calculated also and is defined more exactly duration of the first period of the Phanerozoe - Vendian.
Category: Geophysics

How does Geomagnetic Field form

Authors: Jianfei Chen
Comments: 5 Pages.

Geomagnetic field is important to every life, forming of which has not been explained well. This paper linked lodestone on earth and distance from earth to sun to explain forming of the geomagnetic field. Finally found that key to forming the geomagnetic field is distance from earth to sun. Affected by this distance, the matter earth gets from sun is special magnetic energy particles, which promotes to form lodestone, magnetic energy from which is stored in lodestone. Much lodestone on earth makes up a huge magnet, which release unified magnetic energy to make up the geomagnetic field. Email: eastear@outlook.com / eastear@163.com
Category: Geophysics

Invisibility Cloaks for Stress Waves

Authors: George Rajna
Comments: 23 Pages.

Despite casting deep doubt on dozens of theoretical papers on "elastodynamic" cloaking, the new study's authors from the Georgia Institute of Technology don't think civil engineers should completely give up on it, just on the idea of an ideal cloak. [19] University of Southern Denmark researchers have conducted simulations of dark matter particles hitting the Earth. [18] A global team of scientists, including two University of Mississippi physicists, has found that the same instruments used in the historic discovery of gravitational waves caused by colliding black holes could help unlock the secrets of dark matter, a mysterious and as-yet-unobserved component of the universe. [17] The lack of so-called “dark photons” in electron-positron collision data rules out scenarios in which these hypothetical particles explain the muon’s magnetic moment. [16]
Category: Geophysics

Proposal for Definition and Implementation of a Unified Geodetic Referential for North Africa

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem; Magtouf Rezgui
Comments: 6 Pages. It is a numerical version of the original paper. In French.

In this paper, we present the details of the proposal for definition and implementation of a unified geodetic referential for the countries of North Africa as : - the choice of the system of the referential, - the steps of the realization of the project, - the training of the geodesists working on the project.
Category: Geophysics

A Solution of the Laplacian Using Geodetic Coordinates

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages.

Using the geodetic coordinates $(\varphi,\lambda,h)$, we give the expression of the laplacian $\Delta V=\ds \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial x ^2}+\frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial y ^2}+\frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial z ^2}$ in these coordinates. A solution of $\Delta V=0$ of type $V=f(\lambda).g(\varphi,h)$ is given. The partial differential equation satisfied by $g(\varphi,h)$ is transformed in an ordinary differential equation of a new variable $u=u(\varphi,h)$.
Category: Geophysics

New Short-Term Prognosis of Strong Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions According to Daily Indexis of Solar Activity

Authors: A.M.Eigenson, I.B.Bazylevych, M.S.Shevchenko
Comments: 1 Page.

Recently we have made the prognosis of such terrestrial events for the period between April 22 and May 2, 2019. This forecasting is confirmed. Now we do the same prognosis for the next 2 weeks, from May 19 until June 2, 2019. During this period new great catastrophes are expected to occur on our Earth. In our days, we see from Fig. 1 that the dangerous area lies between May 19 and June 2, 2019. (Addition: earthquakes 6+ are noted as circle’s, earthquakes 7+ as ellipsis and volcanic eruptions as crosses). So, the people of seismic zones: BE CAREFUL!
Category: Geophysics

Le Découpage Cartographique International

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French.

This note concerns the international cartographic division. It gives how is organized the numbering of sheets at different scales ranging from 1/500 to 1/50000 and their sizes and surfaces.
Category: Geophysics

Systèmes de Référence Systèmes Projectifs

Authors: Henri Marcel Dufour, Abdemajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 27 Pages. In French. It is an-update version of a paper dated 1979 with comments of the second author.

Many geodetic works currently exist on the surface of the globe, which have developed through regional networks, usually each having a fundamental point, where the astronomical data (\phi= latitude,\lambda= longitude,Az= azimuth) of a reference are confused with the counterparts geodetic data. The comparison of 2 networks, and, step by step, of all the connectable networks, can be done by the analysis of the coordinates of their common points. To this end, we can use 3 types of coordinates: - Geographical coordinates = simple method, but not very convenient for different ellipsoids. - Three-dimensional cartesian coordinates, the most rigorous method in the case where the so-called geoid correction has been made. - Coordinates in conformal projection. An analysis of the main formulas that can be used is studied by the author in this article.
Category: Geophysics

A Note About Dufour-Fezzani Formula

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French.

In this note, we review the Dufour-Fezzani formula concerning the comparison of two geodetic networks. This formula is developed for ellipsoidal models.
Category: Geophysics

Collection of Exercises and Problems of Topography, Astronomy, Geodesy and Least Squares Theory

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 70 Pages. In French.

I have often received students in geomatic requests asking me to provide them with exercises or problems of geodesy, topography, astronomy or the application of the theory of least squares. The paper is a collection of exercises and problems that comes to fill the need of the students in this matter.
Category: Geophysics

Short-Term Prognosis of Strong Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions According to Daily Indexis of Solar Activity

Authors: A.M.Eigenson, I.B.Bazylevych, M.S.Shevchenko
Comments: 1 Page.

Recently one of the authors [1-6] has shown that when solar activity curve begins to go down, then in the vicinity of it's minimum earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. Analysis of data during the period 2010-2018 shows that the probability of false prognosis is no more 2 %. This feature could be used for forecasting these terrestrial events several days in advance. The "opposite" Forbush effect is proposed as possible reason for explanation of this phenomena. In our days, we see from Fig. 1 that the dangerous area lies between April 22 and May 2, 2019. (Addition: earthquakes 6+ are noted as circle’s, earthquakes 7+ as ellipsis and volcanic eruptions as crosses).
Category: Geophysics

Numerical Solution of Master Equation Corresponding to Schumann Waves

Authors: Victor Christianto, Florentin Smarandache
Comments: 7 Pages. This paper has not been submitted to a journal. Comments are welcome

Following a hypothesis by Marciak-Kozlowska, 2011, we consider one dimensional Schumann wave transfer phenomena. Numerical solution of that equation was obtained by the help of Mathematica.
Category: Geophysics

Attractions of the Sun and the Moon on The Earth

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 6 Pages. In French.

This note gives the elements on the attraction of the sun and the moon. It was inspired by the reading of the book by Helmut Moritz and Ivan I. Muller entitled Earth Rotation: Theory and Observation which can be a tidal introductory course. \\ It includes the following chapters: - The lunar-solar tidal potential. - Zonal, sectoral and tesseral terms
Category: Geophysics

Report of Spatial Geodesy on the Rapid Implementation of a Unified Geodetic System in Africa

Authors: Fezzani Chedly, Ben Hadj Salem Abdelmajid
Comments: 13 Pages. It is a numerical edition of the original paper dedicated to the memory of the first author who passed away on March 09, 2019. In French.

Having a unified reference system, established on a universally accepted and utilitarian basis, is an important contribution to the judicious use of geographic information to promote Africa's economic development at the national level, regional and continental. To do so, it is important today to make the best use of space technologies and to assimilate them, especially through Cartographic National Institutions. This paper: - is written for small African mapping institutions, - defines the organizational prerequisites for rapidly implementing the Unified Reference System at the continental level. - serves as a framework to guide the debate on the real questions to be asked in this area.
Category: Geophysics

Nullspace and Mitigation in Seismic Imaging and Seismic Inversion

Authors: August Lau, Alfonso Gonzalez
Comments: 14 Pages.

Seismic inversion is the inverse problem in seismic data processing. Seismic inversion is normally used to recover the medium properties or reflectivity series given the input seismic traces. Nullspace is common in linearized inversion where many vectors could be mapped into the one vector. It is an indication that many models could fit the same data, regardless of the inversion method. Inversion could give odd geometric shapes that are not physical or geological. We will discuss mitigation of nullspace to yield results that are meaningful for interpretation of geologic layers for oil and gas exploration.
Category: Geophysics

Proven Methods for Filtering SG Data

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 5 Pages.

Subject are different methods for noise-free data reduction of low-frequency geophysical data and identification of interference sources. The most important method is the selective compensation of strong spectral lines.
Category: Geophysics

Non-Parametric Wavelet Functional Analysis for Horizontal and Vertical Displacements Derived from GPS Stations in Western Alaska During the Year 2012

Authors: Homayoon Zahmatkesh, Abbas Abedini
Comments: 19 Pages. Earth Science Research; Vol. 6, No. 2; 2017

In order to analyze the dynamic processes of the Earth interior and the effect of the propagation of the seismic waves to the surface, a comprehensive study of the Earth crust kinematics is necessary. Although the Global Positing System (GPS) is a powerful method to measure ground displacements and velocities both horizontally and vertically as well as to infer the tectonic stress regime generated by the subsurface processes (from local fault systems to huge tectonic plate movements and active volcanoes), the complexity of the deformation pattern generated during such movements is not always easy to be interpreted. Therefore, it is necessary to work on new methodologies and modifying the previous approaches in order to improve the current methods and better understand the crustal movements. In this paper, we focus on western Alaska area, where many complex faults and active volcanoes exist. In particular, we analyze the data acquired each 30 seconds by three GPS stations located in western Alaska (AC31, AB09 d AB11) from January 1, 2012 to December 31, 2012 in order to compute their displacements in horizontal and vertical components by vectorial summation of the average daily and annual velocities components. Furthermore, we design non-parametric DMeyer and Haar wavelets for horizontal and vertical velocities directions in order to identify significant and homogenous displacements during the year 2012. Finally, the non-parametric decomposition of total horizontal and vertical normalized velocities based on level 1 and level 2 coefficients have been applied to compute normal and cumulative probability histograms related to the accuracy and statistical evolution of each applied wavelet. The results present a very good agreement between the designed non-parametric wavelets and their decomposition functions for each of the three above mentioned GPS stations displacements and velocities during the year 2012.
Category: Geophysics

A Peculiar Natural Resonance of the Earth at 46.265 µHz

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 6 Pages.

By carefully choosing the filter methods, the noise level of geophysical data could be reduced sufficiently to detect a hitherto unknown spectral line whose modulation is phase-locked to the duration of the year. The origin is enigmatic.
Category: Geophysics

On the True Shape of the Earth

Authors: Royan Rosche
Comments: 1 Page.

I show why the Earth does not have a geometric shape
Category: Geophysics

Completing the Slichter Triplet

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 5 Pages.

Following the discovery of a spectral line with an unusually high quality factor, exactly two other lines with comparable characteristics were found in the frequency range 45 to 130 μHz. Maybe it is the desired Slichter triplett.
Category: Geophysics

Weak Signal Detection in Geophysical Data using Vector-FFT

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 5 Pages.

The gravimeter in CB measures at 50.65 μHz a hitherto unknown, amplitude-modulated and very weakly damped natural vibration of the earth, the cause of which is not recognizable. It could be a member of the famous "Slichter Triplet".
Category: Geophysics

Frequency Measurements in Noisy Records using Vector-FFT

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 5 Pages.

The search for weak spectral lines with SNR ≈ 1 in noisy gravitational data is difficult, since the analysis methods used so far do not exploit all available information. The vector FFT presented here reduces the noise level and narrows the FWHM of all spectral lines by taking advantage of the phase information of the FFT.
Category: Geophysics

Black Carbon Shuts Out Daylight in Soil

Authors: Magnus Carlsson, Olof Andrén
Comments: 1 Page.

We tested the effects of charcoal addition on growth of Lepidium Sativum in soil.
Category: Geophysics

Exploration Geophysics at Home: Search for Minerals.

Authors: Giuliano Bettini
Comments: 12 Pages.

Exploration geophysics is an applied branch of geophysics, which uses physical methods, such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electromagnetic etc, to measure the physical properties of the subsurface. It is most often used to detect or infer the presence and position of economically useful geological deposits, such as ore minerals. The paper shows the results of a mineral search at a feldspar mine with contact rocks wich are rich in peculiar minerals. Nickel and silver mineral were analyzed in this locality, some of them yet unidentified.
Category: Geophysics

Statistical Physics Model of Seismic Activation Preceding a Major Earthquake

Authors: Daniel S. Brox
Comments: 14 Pages.

Starting from earthquake fault dynamic equations, a correspondence between earthquake occurrence statistics in a seismic region before a major earthquake and eigenvalue statistics of a differential operator whose bound state eigenfunctions characterize the distribution of stress in the seismic region is derived. Modelling these eigenvalue statistics with a 2D Coulomb Gas statistical physics model, previously reported deviation of seismic activation earthquake occurence statistics from Gutenberg-Richter statistics in time intervals preceding the major earthquake is derived. It is also explained how statistical physics modelling predicts a finite dimensional nonlinear dynamic system describes real time velocity model evolution in the region undergoing seismic activation, and how this prediction can be tested experimentally.
Category: Geophysics

Statistical Physics Model of Seismic Activation Preceding a Major Earthquake

Authors: Daniel Brox
Comments: 14 Pages. Revised article content to replace previous submission

Starting from earthquake fault dynamic equations, a correspondence between earthquake occurrence statistics in a seismic region before a major earthquake and eigenvalue statistics of a differential operator whose bound state eigenfunctions characterize the distribution of stress in the seismic region is derived. Modelling these eigenvalue statistics with a 2D Coulomb Gas statistical physics model, previously reported deviation of seismic activation earthquake occurence statistics from Gutenberg-Richter statistics in time intervals preceding the major earthquake is derived. It is also explained how statistical physics modelling predicts a finite dimensional nonlinear dynamic system describes real time velocity model evolution in the region undergoing seismic activation, and how this prediction can be tested experimentally.
Category: Geophysics

Temporal Correspondences in the Period 1905-2023 Between the Bradyseismic Trend at Campi Flegrei, the Periods of Lunar Culminations with Altitude Above 75° and the New Moons in Perigee Orbiting on the Boreal Segment Delimited by the Meridians +1° and +25°

Authors: Adriano Ballabene
Comments: 26 Pages. 5 images 43 diagrams 6 tables

The Campi Flegrei are an extensive volcanic area west of Naples subject to slow vertical deformation of the ground. The accelerations of the phenomenon which occurred in the periods 1950-1952, 1969-1972, 1982-1984 resulted in an overall uplift of just under 4 metres. It is shown how in the period 1905-2023 the most relevant ascending phases of phlegraean bradyseism, except two, took place during the periods of lunar Culminations with a Altitude greater than 75 degrees (Fig. 1B) after which the ground has decreased or more in general it has not undergone considerable changes: from 1905 to 2023, excluding the 1982-1984 and 2010-2021 windows, every period of lunar Culminations with a Altitude lower than 75 degrees can be aligned with an subsidence (Fig. 2). Two ascending phases do not align with the periods of highest Moons, but the first (1982-1984) was anticipated and accompanied by a peculiar sequence of 3 New Moons High in Super and Extreme Perigee orbiting at the peak of the sygytial phase over the Central Europe and the second took place during an configuration (extensive and unique) of some Elevated New Moons in Perigee over Italy (Fig. 3) in the central period (2013-2018) intermediate (2010-2021) to the two periods 2003-2009 and 2022-2028 with maximum Culminations (Fig. 1B). It is highlighted how the distribution over time of the 24 most relevant Moons, in gravitational and geometric terms (Fig. 3), corresponds to concomitant bradyseismic phases of proportionate importance. By far the most intense bradyseismic phase, that of 1982-1984, corresponds to the largest concentration of Major Moons and the most moderate and prolonged uplift phase (2005-2023) corresponds to an extensive distribution of "Central European" High New Moons in Perigee only Minimum. It is shown how these 24 Moons (which will be called Major Moons here as they are simultaneously the highest New Moons in the local celestial vault, the closest to the Earth and the most attractive because combined with the gravitational force of the Sun) are not to be considered isolated but always accompanied, before and after, by a harmonica of Elevate Moons in Super and Extreme Perigee.
Category: Geophysics

Molodensky-Badekas Transformation of Seven Parameters

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 15 Pages.

In this note version2, we present the Molodensky-Badekas seven-parameter transformation from one geodetic system to another, showing how to determine the 7 parameters by the method of least squares and calculate them numerically following the number of the parameters 4, 5 or 7.
Category: Geophysics

Presentation of the Cases 4,5 and 7 Parameters of Bursa-Wolf Transformation

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 14 Pages. In French. Minor correction is added.

In this note, we present the Bursa-Wolf seven-parameter transformation from one geodetic sys-tem to another, showing how to determine the 7 parameters by the method of least squares and wecalculate them numerically following the number of the parameters 4,5 or 7.
Category: Geophysics

Increased Aperiodic Hydrothermal Activity in Defined Submarine Areas (Volcanic Areas and Tectonic Fractures ) at a Global Scale

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 30 Pages, 190 images - added 2 pages

My study provides first evidence of the real sources of the SST-anomalies which lead to the development of El Ninos: These are hydrothermal-sources, which are located for example in the Kermadec-Tonga-Arc (e.g. in the Monowai- and Macauley-Volcanic-areas), New-Hebredes-Trench-area, Nankai-Trough- and Philippine-Plate-area, Salado-Fracture-Zone, Falkland-Agulhas-Fracture-Zone, South-West-Indian-Ridge-area, Mid-Atlantic-Ridge, LFZ, Kane-Fracture-Zone and in the Pacific-Plate east of Japan, to name the important locations. The cause of El Nino-events is hydrothermal-water that rises from submarine volcanic-areas and tectonic-fractures to the ocean-surface ! On the ocean-surface this hydrothermal-water appears in the form of growing-plumes or-blobs (sea-surface-temperature-(SST)-anomalies), which then get distributed by the main ocean-currents and by surface-currents. With the NASA-Worldview-tool an analysis of the sea-surface-temperature (SST)-anomalies was done for the time-period Oct.2021 to June 2023, and for the time-periods in which the strong El Ninos from 1997/98 and 2014-16 developed. Five areas ( 1—5 ) on the ocean-floor were found where large amounts of hydrothermal-water was rising from specific areas on the ocean-floor to the surface at irregular-intervals during the mentioned time-periods ! Note: The irregular hydrothermal-activity in these five areas is a global phenomenon !! The hydrothermal-activity comes and goes in a "wave-like-pattern", which often causes activity in 3-5 areas, which are thousands of km apart, at nearly the same time ! As an example I want to mention the period 9.12.2013 to 21.12.2013 (12 days) in which the hydrothermal-activity reached a maximum level in at least four of the five areas (1-5) in this short time-period ! Note: These areas are located in the northern- and southern-Hemisphere. Changes in Earths Magnetic-Field seem to be the main cause of this increased Hydrothermal-and Volcanic-Activity ! These changes (e.g. geomagnetic-jerks) in Earths-Magnetic-Field can be caused either by internal-processes which take place near the Core-Mantle-Boundary (CMB), or they can be caused by external-events, which are strong geomagnetic-storms caused by solar-wind (space-weather). First the geomagnetic-changes (e.g. geomagnetic-jerks) seem to increase seismicity in High-Geothermal-Flux-(HGF)-areas, then with a certain delay hydrothermal-activity, especially along tectonic-fractures, is increasing, which then rises the SST and the Ocean-Heat-Content, and finally causes El-Ninos. The key to find the hydrothermal- or volcanic-sources, which cause the strong temperature-anomalies, is the precise observation of the development of every major anomaly in an animation, from the early beginning, when the first small warm-water-blob appears on the surface ! Part-2 of my hypothesis explains the probable causes of the described "global-hydrothermal-activity" in more detail !
Category: Geophysics

Changes in Earths Magnetic Field are a main cause of Volcanism, Earthquakes, HGFA-seismicity and Global Warming

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 23 pages, 60 images+diagrams, 3 Tables - pages 2 & 11 were added in V2

Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field seem to be a main cause of Volcanic-Eruptions on Earth ! These changes (or disturbances) in Earth’s Magnetic-Field can be caused either by internal processes which take place near the Core-Mantle-Boundary (CMB), or they can be caused by external events which are strong geomagnetic-storms caused by solar wind (space-weather). The maximum impact on volcanism, of the geomagnetic-changes caused by internal processes is around +/-30%, and the maximum impact of the external events is around +/-20%. There is a clear correlation of geo-magnetism, HGFA-seismicity, volcanism and global warming. First the geomagnetic-changes seem to cause earthquakes, especially in High-Geothermal-Flux-(HGF)-areas (e.g. mid-ocean-ridges), then with a delay of 1-2 years Volcanism (& hydrothermal-activity) is increasing, which then rises the Ocean-Heat-Content (->El-Nino-events), and eventually accelerates Global-Warming. We can see a sharp rise and an elevation of the global-volcanic-activity since around 1997, just after the sharp acceleration of the North-Magnetic Pole-shift (Pole-wander) began, around 1-2 years before. The velocity of the North-Magnetic-Pole-shift was <20km/yr before 1990, and it increased to >45km/yr in 1997 ! In just 7 years it more then doubled ! This fast North-Magnetic-Pole-shift is caused by an interference/interaction between two large lobes (blobs) of negative-magnetic-flux near the Earth’s core-mantle-boundary (CMB), as Satellite-data of ESA’s Swarm-mission showed. This fast North-Magnetic Pole-shift, which can be explained by shifts of either fluids or electric-charge near the CMB, is a onetime-event which has increased global-volcanism by around 30% between ~1997 & 2015, probably caused by increased pressure inside Earth’s mantle, as a result of increased dynamical-processes near the CMB. Another effect which must be mentioned here: Strong magnetic-acceleration-patterns (magnetic-waves) which are located along the equatorial regions of the CMB, and which move around Earth’s outer-core with a 7-year period seem to influence Volcanism too. The -number of active volcanos- in the Phillipines which oscillates with a ~7-year period between 0 and ~3 may be the proof for that. Further there is a clear correlation of sunspot-(solar-cycle)-minimas and Lows in the chart of the -Active Volcanos per year- which shows that Earth’s Volcanism is clearly influenced by strong geomagnetic-storm-periods, or by the missing of such storm-periods ! During sunspot-minimas global volcanism clearly decreases by around 20%! Further the chart of -Total Volcanic Eruptions per year- and strong geomagnetic-storms from 1800-2023 shows that there are sharp increases in volcanic-eruptions visible, shortly after strong geomagnetic-storm-periods !
Category: Geophysics

Agricultural Drought Analysis in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Using Remote Sensing Data and Gis Technology

Authors: GyongBong Ju, YongMin Kim, GwangSu Kim, YunHui Kim
Comments: 17 Pages.

This paper describes the comprehensive analysis and evaluation of agricultural drought phenomena in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from 2012 to 2021 using remote sensing technology and GIS technology, which have proven superior in drought research. We analyzed dynamic changes in agricultural drought according to the characteristics of each drought index during the growth period from 2012 to 2021 through the calculation of SPI, VCI, TCI, VHI, and NVSWI derived from time series CHIRPS and MODIS data. The moisture condition index (MCI) was newly proposed starting from the importance of the moisture condition of crops, confirmed reliable by comparing it with the staple agricultural drought indices. Paper proposed a new integrated drought index CDI that comprehensively reflects the vegetation status, soil moisture status, and crop moisture status using the logical calculation function of the geographic information system.As a result of examining the dynamic change of agricultural drought from 2012 to 2021 using CDI, high temperature and sub-normal rainfall were the main factors causing the drying. The integrated drought index CDI proposed in this paper provides a premise that can be a staple indicator for agricultural drought analysis and evaluation as it is possible to comprehensively and simultaneously consider the vegetation status, soil moisture status, and crop moisture status.
Category: Geophysics

How Fictitious Forces Instead of Gravity Create Tides

Authors: Sjaak Uitterdijk
Comments: Pages.

It is interesting to realize that a cubic meter of water at the surface of the oceans is subject to a gravity of Earth itself of 9800 N and to 0.03 N of Moon’s gravity. So any influence of the Moon on the level of such water must be excluded. Notwithstanding this fact the most weird theories haven been developed to prove the opposite, especially to show which phenomenon creates the mysterious double frequency of the tides. This chapter shows an all-encompassing solution.
Category: Geophysics

How Fictitious [Forces] Instead of Gravity Create Tides

Authors: Sjaak Uitterdijk
Comments: 12 Pages.

It is interesting to realize that a cubic meter of water at the surface of the oceans is subject to a gravitational force of 9800 N of Earth itself and to 0.03 N of Moon’s gravity force. So any influence of the Moon on the level of such water must be excluded. Notwithstanding this fact the most weird theories haven been developed to prove the opposite, especially to show which phenomenon creates the mysterious double frequency of the tides. This chapter shows an all-encompassing solution.
Category: Geophysics

A Specific Magnitude Budget for the Detection of 36 Nuclear Earthquakes Near Large Urban Areas Subject to a Natural Seismic Hazard.

Authors: Alexis Zaganidis
Comments: 31 Pages.

Multiple underground nuclear explosions may trigger the rupture of seismic faults and mimic a natural earthquake. Moreover, multiple nuclear explosions can be spatially arranged (on a vertical line for instance) and temporally synchronized in order to reduce significantly the P-waves (except inside both spherical cones along the vertical line arrangement).A Specific Magnitude Budget, with the relevant elementary approximations, is relatively enough accurate to compare unambiguously the energy of the stress drop over the fault rupture and the energy of the radiated seismic waves.Indeed, for the largest natural earthquakes precisely recorded ($6.9 leq M_wleq 7.3$), we define very conservatively their average seismic radiation efficiency to $0.25$. It follows from that definition, the natural seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $0.113$ and $0.520$ around the average $0.269$ (the natural Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta_{nat}^{min} M_Z=-0.630$ and $Delta_{nat}^{max} M_Z=-0.189$ around the average $Delta_{nat}^{mean} M_Z=-0.380$).On the other hand, the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $1.185$ and $1~113$ around the average $81.9$ (the nuclear Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta^{min}_{nuc} M_Z=0.049$ and $Delta^{max}_{nuc} M_Z=2.031$ around the average $Delta_{nuc}^{mean} M_Z=1.275$).In practice, the natural seismic radiation efficiency is always $2.278times$ times smaller than the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency (an artificial gap of the Specific Magnitude Budget $Delta_{gap} M_Z=0.238$ is found). Indeed, to provoke a more powerful stress drop over the fault rupture with multiple underground explosions, an accurate information about the future epicenters should be known which is impossible in practice. Lowering too much the energy of the multiple underground nuclear explosions would also increase the risk of not triggering at all the rupture of a seismic fault.
Category: Geophysics

A Specific Magnitude Budget for the Detection of 32 Nuclear Earthquakes Near Large Urban Areas Subject to a Natural Seismic Hazard.

Authors: Alexis Zaganidis
Comments: 23 Pages.

Multiple underground nuclear explosions may trigger the rupture of seismic faults and mimic a natural earthquake. Moreover, multiple nuclear explosions can be spatially arranged (on a vertical line for instance) and temporally synchronized in order to reduce significantly the P-waves (except inside both spherical cones along the vertical line arrangement). A Specific Magnitude Budget, with the relevant elementary approximations, is relatively enough accurate to compare unambiguously the energy of the stress drop over the fault rupture and the energy of the radiated seismic waves. Indeed, for the largest natural earthquakes precisely recorded ($6.9 leq M_wleq 7.3$), we define very conservatively their average seismic radiation efficiency to $0.25$. It follows from that definition, the natural seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $0.113$ and $0.520$ around the average $0.269$ (the natural Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta_{nat}^{min} M_Z=-0.630$ and $Delta_{nat}^{max} M_Z=-0.189$ around the average $Delta_{nat}^{mean} M_Z=-0.380$). On the other hand, the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $1.185$ and $1~113$ around the average $81.9$ (the nuclear Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta^{min}_{nuc} M_Z=0.049$ and $Delta^{max}_{nuc} M_Z=2.031$ around the average $Delta_{nuc}^{mean} M_Z=1.275$). In practice, the natural seismic radiation efficiency is always $2.278times$ times smaller than the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency (an artificial gap of the Specific Magnitude Budget $Delta_{gap} M_Z=0.238$ is found). Indeed, to provoke a more powerful stress drop over the fault rupture with multiple underground explosions, an accurate information about the future epicenters should be known which is impossible in practice. Lowering too much the energy of the multiple underground nuclear explosions would also increase the risk of not triggering at all the rupture of a seismic fault.
Category: Geophysics

A Specific Magnitude Budget for the Detection of 30 Nuclear Earthquakes in Urban Areas Subject to a Natural Seismic Hazard.

Authors: Alexis Zaganidis
Comments: 21 Pages.

Multiple underground nuclear explosions may trigger the rupture of seismic faults and mimic a natural earthquake. Moreover, multiple nuclear explosions can be spatially arranged (on a vertical line for instance) and temporally synchronized in order to reduce significantly the P-waves (except inside both spherical cones along the vertical line arrangement). A Specific Magnitude Budget, with the relevant elementary approximations, is relatively enough accurate to compare unambiguously the energy of the stress-drop from the fault rupture and the energy of the radiated seismic waves.Indeed, for the largest natural earthquakes ($M_wgeq 8.0$), we define very conservatively their average seismic radiation efficiency to $0.5$. It follows from that definition, the natural seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $0.124$ and $0.569$ around the average $0.294$ (the natural Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta_{nat}^{min} M_Z=-0.604$ and $Delta_{nat}^{max} M_Z=-0.163$ around the average $Delta_{nat}^{mean} M_Z=-0.354$).On the other hand, the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $1.297$ and $1~218$ around the average $95.4$ (the nuclear Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta^{min}_{nuc} M_Z=0.075$ and $Delta^{max}_{nuc} M_Z=2.057$ around the average $Delta_{nuc}^{mean} M_Z=1.320$).In practice, the natural seismic radiation efficiency is always $2.278times$ smaller than the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency (an artificial gap of the Specific Magnitude Budget $Delta_{gap} M_Z=0.238$ is found). Indeed, to provoke a more powerful stress-drop from the fault rupture with multiple underground explosions, an accurate information about the future epicenters should be known which is impossible in practice. Lowering too much the energy of the multiple underground nuclear explosions would also increase the risk of not triggering at all the rupture of a seismic fault.
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_supplement 1 to the Geophysical Evidence (Part 6b)

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 15 pages, 40 images, 10 diagrams

This is a supplement document to my Summary of geophysical evidence for the Ø1270x950km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact-Crater (see Part 6 of my hypothesis).The purpose of this document is to point-out the main geo-physical features visible on our planet Earth, that were directly caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact-Event.A comparison of the real PT-Crater-topography with a computer-simulated-topography indicates a Probability >99,99997% for the real existence of the PT-Crater ! Further I want to inform about two other possible impact-structures on Earth, which I believe are a result of the global PT-Impact Event too. The first structure seems to be a "smaller-twin" of the PT-Impact Crater. It is the Tarim Basin in NW-China. The Kunlun Mountains around it indicate an age of 250 Ma !The Tarim-Basin has an approximate elliptical shape with the dimensions of ≈900x400km (see page 7-8). This basin probably was formed by a second impactor that impacted in-line with the main-impactor which has caused the PT-Impact-Crater. The 900x400km elliptical Tarim-Basin probably had a shorter elliptical outline of around 750x500km shortly after the PT-Impact, but was then deformed later.If we use a double-oblique elliptical impact-crater-twin on Mars as a reference, then the Tarim-Basin-Impact was caused by a similar effect as the smaller oblique impact crater of the Mars-Impact, which is located in-line with the bigger oblique-impact-crater but a bit uprange (ahead) of the main-impact-crater.In the NASA-study about this double-oblique impact on Mars, as reason for this double-impact, the probable collapse (break-up into pieces) of the impactor shortly before the impact was mentioned. This collapse of the impactor just before the impact in all probability was caused by atmospheric effects (e.g. by the atmospheric impact-shock-wave which hit the impactor, and atmospheric-drag etc.). Initial cracks inside the impactor probably already occurred when the impactor reached the "Roche-limit" of Mars (the point where gravitational forces start to rip the impactor apart). The other possible impact-structure which I want to describe is the 41x32km elliptical shaped F’derik Zouerate district Iron-ore-mine in Mauretania (NW-Africa). see page 9. It is located in a dark-colored-area which contains Fe-rich minerals. This iron-rich area has an outline which can be fit precisely into an ellipse ! That‘s why I believe that this iron-rich-area is the result of a secondary- or tertiary-impact in the PT-Ejecta Ray R1, which was caused by the PT-Impact Event and which runs along the NW-coast of Africa.
Category: Geophysics

Synchronised Lightning

Authors: Remi Cornwall
Comments: 3 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Only complete/fully written article should be submitted)

This little study talks about good science methodology, rationality, plausibility and Okham’s Razor. Something more than a conjecture or even an hypothesis is developed to offer an explanation to the phenomenon of lightning strike synchronisation. An experiment is suggested to go a long way to proving the hypothesis, to the point of offering no other reasonable explanation.
Category: Geophysics

Tribute to The Memory of My Friend and Colleague Abdelkader Sellal, Engineer Geodesist (1946-2017) - V3- September 2022 -

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 117 Pages. In French and the letter of motivation in English.

This document presents a tribute to the memory of my colleague and friend Abdelkader Sellal, a retired geodesist engineer from the Algerian Institute of Cartography and Remote Sensing. I published a report he had written in 2004where he had proposed projects concerning the modernization of Algerian Geodesy in particular :- Establishment of a Network of Permanent GPS Stations and a Basic Geodetic Network.- GPS calculations. Re-Adjustment and redefinition of the Algerian national geodetic network using adjustment software.- Definition of a System and a Reference of Altitudes in Algeria.- The Geoid: Studies on the determination of a gravimetric geoid in Algeria.
Category: Geophysics

Tribute to The Memory of My Friend and Colleague Abdelkader Sellal, Engineer Geodesist (1946-2017) - V2- August 2022-

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 107 Pages. In French.

This document presents a tribute to the memory of my colleague and friend Abdelkader Sellal, a retired geodesist engineer from the Algerian Institute of Cartography and Remote Sensing. I published a report he had written in 2004 where he had proposed projects concerning the modernization of Algerian Geodesy in particular: - Establishment of a Network of Permanent GPS Stations and a Basic Geodetic Network. - GPS calculations. Re-Adjustment and redefinition of the Algerian national geodetic network using adjustment software. - Definition of a System and a Reference of Altitudes in Algeria. - The Geoid: Studies on the determination of a gravimetric geoid in Algeria.
Category: Geophysics

The 15x11 km Anaga Crater on Tenerife (Canary Islands)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 37 pages, 80 images, 76 diagrams

Here a summary of the Raman-spectroscopic analysis a of rock-samples which I have collected near the Ø 15 x 11 km “Anaga Impact Crater“ on Tenerife, and on other interesting sites on this Island. From the analysed feldspar-samples some samples may show Raman-spectra which indicate (W)-weakly-shocked or (M)-moderately-shocked Feldspar. But these Raman-spectra must be analysed by experts who have the experience to correctly assess such spectra. The Raman-spectra of the feldspar-samples from sites No.: 2, 5, 7, 9 & 58 may indicate shocked minerals. (an explanation to Raman spectra of shocked Alkali-Feldspar: see at page 30 in the Appendix_3). Minerals that were indicated by the Raman-spectroscopic analyses : Labradorite(2); Orthoclase(5); Augite, Titanite, Reyerite, Analcime(7); Annite, Augite(9); Anorthoclase(58) (->samples site No. in () Beside possible shocked minerals or minerals which may indicate an impact event, there definitely is one site on Tenerife that should be examined in more detail, in regards to the described impact event. This is sample-site 58, where an old-rock-island is located inside the large caldera of the Pico del Teide Volcano. This mass of old-rock probably was lifted by the impact or by the later volcano, from the original ancient ocean floor. Other interesting sites are located on the road along the ridge-top of the Anaga-Range, in the Teno-Mountain-Range and on site 10 which also belongs to the old basaltc shield of Tenerife. According to my hypothesis the hot spots which caused the Canary Islands originally were impact sites of large ejecta fragments, which were ejected from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea. And I am sure that these impact sites (hot spots) were produced by the same large-scale secondary impact event (caused by the PTI), which also has formed the "Bay of Lyon Crater" and other secondary-impact-structures in Spain. This large-scale impact event is visible on the Gravity-Anomaly Map of the Canarian Islands. The PT-Impact Event probably formed a large secondary-crater, the hypothetical Ø430x290km Gibraltar-Crater (GIC) (see gravity anomaly map). The oblique (ellipitical) impact-craters indicated on this Gravity-Anomaly-map, offshore of Tenerife, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, all belong to this impact-event and are located along the hypothetical crater-wall (-rim) of the GIC. A magnetic-anomaly-map of the Atlantic-Ocean-floor south-west of Spain provides indication for this Ø430x290 km Gibraltar Crater. (see the explanation on pages 28 & 29 of my PT-Impact-Hypothesis Part-2.
Category: Geophysics

The 20x15 km Tejeda Crater on Gran Canaria (Canary Islands)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 31 pages, 84 images, 56 diagrams

This is a summary of the Raman-spectroscopic analysis a of rock-samples which I have collected near the Ø 20 x 15 km “Tejeda Impact Crater“ on Gran Canaria, and on other interesting sites on the Island. Some of the analysed feldspar-samples may show Raman-spectra which indicate (W)-weakly-shocked or (M)-moderately-shocked Feldspar. The Raman-spectra from the following sample sites No.: 15-A, 23, 28, 32 & 33 may indicate shocked feldspar-minerals. These Raman-spectra must be further analysed by experts with the experience to correctly assess such spectra. ( explanation to Raman-spectra of shocked Feldspar : see at page 30 in the Appendix 3 ) Beside possible shocked feldspar minerals other minerals, e.g. a number of iron-bearer-minerals found on the island, may also indicate an impact event. Different types of feldspar-breccia on sample site 32 and 34-B (on the west-coast), and rock-samples from the tip of the outflow-tongue from the Tejeda Crater, which contain iron-bearer minerals like Magnetite may provide the evidence for an impact event. Minerals found in the analyses : Albite, Anorthoclase, Augite, Corvusite, Coyoteite, Cronstedtite, Hollandite, Labradorite, Magnetite, Microcline, Oligoclase, Orthoclase, Tengerite, etc. According to my hypothesis the hot spots which caused the Canary Islands originally were impact sites of large ejecta fragments, which were ejected from the Permian Triassic Impact Crater in the Arctic Sea. And I am sure that these impact sites (hotspots) were produced by the same large-scale secondary impact event (caused by the PTI), which also has formed the "Bay of Lyon Crater" and other secondary-impact-structures in Spain. This large-scale impact event is visible on the Gravity-Anomaly Map of the Canarian Islands. The PT-Impact Event probably formed a large secondary-crater, the hypothetical Ø430x290km Gibraltar-Crater (GIC) (see gravity anomaly map). The smaller oblique (ellipitical) impact-craters indicated on this Gravity-Anomaly-map, offshore of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and Tenerife, all belong to this impact-event and are located along the hypothetical crater-wall (-rim) of the GIC. A magnetic-anomaly-map of the Atlantic-Ocean-floor south-west of Spain provides indication for this Ø430x290km Gibraltar Crater. (see the explanation on pages 28 & 29 of my PT-Impact-Hypothesis Part-2.
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_summary of the Geophysical Evidence

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 27 pages, 132 images, 5 diagrams, 1 table

This is a summary of the geophysical evidence for the Ø1270x950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact-Crater which I have discovered and described in my hypothesis Part 1-6.A topographic map and a satellite image of the Arctic Ocean area, Alaska and Siberia provided the first indication for the PT-Impact Crater and —impact event. The similarities of structures visible on the topographic map to the structures calculated by a computer-simulation of a shallow (oblique) impact with an impact angle of 5°, provide strong evidence for the existence of the Ø1270x950 km PT-Impact-Crater on the Arctic-Ocean-floor. A probability-assessment indicates a Probability >99,99997% for the existence of the PT-Crater!!Especially the elliptical deep-sea-basin in the Arctic Ocean, the bow-shaped Brooks-Range in Alaska and the northern-edge of the Central-Siberian-Plateau (Siberian Traps), which has the same bow-wave-structure like the calculated structure, are strong indicators that the PT-Impact Crater was caused by a shallow impact of an asteroid or comet.Further strong indication for the PT-Impact-Crater comes from a gravity-anomaly map and from a magnetic-anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area and Alaska. The gravity anomaly map clearly shows sections of the elliptical crater-wall of the PT-Impact Crater (positive anomalies). The Brooks-Range in Alaska, which originally was part of the elliptical crater-wall-structure, is also indicated by a positive anomaly on the map. This section drifted away from the PT-Crater, caused by forces of the massive amounts of ejecta-material that was ejected from the crater, which probably was in the range of 100.000.000 to 200.000.000 km^3 of ejecta-material !The magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area shows a triangular-shaped positive anomaly (red), which originates from the crater center. This indicates ejecta that was coming from an iron-rich impactor.The big distance between the elliptical impact basin and the described bow-wave-shaped structure in Siberia, which originally was located directly at the front-end of the PT-Crater, is the result of a divergent tectonic motion and expansion tectonics process that was triggered by the shallow PT-Impact. The leading edges (front-edges) of the two gigantic ejecta wings which were caused by the PT-Impact, cut through Earth’s crust and large amounts of impactor material (e.g. iron) and ejecta material descended into Earth’s mantle and caused the Pacific-LLSVP and the African-LLSVP. All volcanos of the Pacific Fire Ring and volcanism on Earth can be explained solely by the PT-Impact !
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_summary of the Geophysical Evidence

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 26 pages, 125 images, 5 diagrams, 1 table

This is a summary of geophysical evidence for the Ø 1270 x 950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact-Crater which I have discovered and described in my hypothesis Part 1-6.A topographic map and a satellite image of the Arctic Ocean area, Alaska and Siberia provided the first indication for the PT-Impact Crater and —impact event. The similarities of structures visible on the topographic map to the structures calculated by a computer simulation of a shallow (oblique) impact with an impact angle of 5°, provide a strong indication for the existence of the Ø1270x950 km PT-Impact-Crater on the Arctic Ocean floor.Especially the elliptical deep sea basin in the Arctic Ocean, the bow-shaped Brooks Range in Alaska and the northern edge of the Central Siberian Plateau (Siberian Traps), which has the same bow-wave- structure like the calculated structure, are strong indicators that the PT-Impact Crater was caused by a shallow impact of an asteroid or comet.Further strong indication for the PT-Impact-Crater comes from a gravity anomaly map and from a magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area and Alaska. The gravity anomaly map clearly shows sections of the elliptical crater-wall of the PT-Impact Crater (positive anomalies). The Brooks Range in Alaska, which originally was part of the elliptical crater-wall-structure, is also indicated by a positive anomaly on the map. This section drifted away from the PT-Crater, caused by forces of the massive amounts of ejecta material that was ejected from the crater, which probably was in the range of 100.000.000 to 200.000.000 km^3 of ejecta-material !The magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area shows a triangular-shaped positive anomaly (red), which originates from the crater center. This indicates ejecta that was coming from an iron-rich impactor.The big distance between the elliptical impact basin and the described bow-wave-shaped structure in Siberia, which originally was located directly at the front-end of the PT-Crater, is the result of a divergent tectonic motion and expansion tectonics process that was triggered by the shallow PT-impact. The leading edges (front edges) of the two gigantic ejecta wings which were caused by the PT-Impact, cut through Earth’s crust and large amounts of impactor material (e.g. iron) and ejecta material descended into Earth’s mantle and caused the Pacific-LLSVP and the African-LLSVP. All volcanos of the Pacific Fire-Ring and volcanism on Earth can be explained solely by the PT-Impact !
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_summary of the Geophysical Evidence

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 25 pages, 125 images, 5 diagrams

This is a summary of geophysical evidence for the Ø1270 x 950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact-Crater which I have discovered and described in my hypothesis Part 1-6. A topographic map and a satellite image of the Arctic Ocean area, Alaska and Siberia provided the first indication for the PT-Impact Crater and –impact event. The similarities of structures visible on the topographic map to the structures calculated by a computer simulation of a shallow (oblique) impact with an impact angle of 5°, provide a strong indication for the existence of the Ø1270x950 km PT-Impact-Crater on the Arctic Ocean floor. Especially the elliptical deep sea basin in the Arctic Ocean, the bow-shaped Brooks Range in Alaska and the northern edge of the Central Siberian Plateau (Siberian Traps), which has the same bow-wave- structure like the calculated structure, are strong indicators that the PT-Impact Crater was caused by a shallow impact of an asteroid or comet. Further strong indication for the PT-Impact-Crater comes from a gravity anomaly map and from a magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area and Alaska. The gravity anomaly map clearly shows sections of the elliptical crater-wall of the PT-Impact Crater (positive anomalies). The Brooks Range in Alaska, which originally was part of the elliptical crater-wall-structure, is also indicated by a positive anomaly on the map. This section drifted away from the PT-Crater, caused by forces of the massive amounts of ejecta material that was ejected from the crater, which probably was in the range of 100.000.000 to 200.000.000 km^3 of ejecta-material ! The magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area shows a triangular-shaped positive anomaly (red), which originates from the crater center. This indicates ejecta that was coming from an iron-rich impactor. The big distance between the elliptical impact basin and the described bow-wave-shaped structure in Siberia, which originally was located directly at the front-end of the PT-Crater, is the result of a divergent tectonic motion and expansion tectonics process that was triggered by the shallow PT-impact. The leading edges (front edges) of the two gigantic ejecta wings which were caused by the PT-Impact, cut through Earth’s crust and large amounts of impactor material (e.g. iron) and ejecta material descended into Earth’s mantle and caused the Pacific-LLSVP and the African-LLSVP. All volcanos of the Pacific Fire Ring and volcanism on Earth can be explained solely by the PT-Impact !
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact-Crater_summary of the Geophysical Evidence

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 24 pages, 112 images, 4 diagrams

This is a summary of geophysical evidence for the Ø1270 x 950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact-Crater which I have discovered and described in my hypothesis Part 1-6. A topographic map and a satellite image of the Arctic Ocean area, Alaska and Siberia provided the first indication for the PT-Impact Crater and –impact event. The similarities of structures visible on the topographic map to the structures calculated by a computer simulation of a shallow (oblique) impact with an impact angle of 5°, provide a strong indication for the existence of the Ø1270x950 km PT-Impact-Crater on the Arctic Ocean floor. Especially the elliptical deep sea basin in the Arctic Ocean, the bow-shaped Brooks Range in Alaska and the northern edge of the Central Siberian Plateau (Siberian Traps), which has the same bow-wave-structure like the calculated structure, are strong indicators that the PT-Impact Crater was caused by a shallow impact of an asteroid or comet. Further strong indication for the PT-Impact-Crater comes from a gravity anomaly map and from a magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area and Alaska. The gravity anomaly map clearly shows sections of the elliptical crater-wall of the PT-Impact Crater (positive anomalies). The Brooks Range in Alaska, which originally was part of the elliptical crater-wall-structure, is also indicated by a positive anomaly on the map. This section drifted away from the PT-Crater, caused by forces of the massive amounts of ejecta material that was ejected from the crater, which probably was in the range of 100.000.000 to 200.000.000 km^3 of ejecta-material ! The magnetic anomaly map of the Arctic Ocean area shows a triangular-shaped positive anomaly (red), which originates from the crater center. This indicates ejecta that was coming from an iron-rich impactor. The big distance between the elliptical impact basin and the described bow-wave-shaped structure in Siberia, which originally was located directly at the front-end of the PT-Crater, is the result of a divergent tectonic motion and expansion tectonics process that was triggered by the shallow PT-impact. The leading edges (front edges) of the two gigantic ejecta wings which were caused by the PT-Impact, cut through Earth’s crust and large amounts of impactor material (e.g. iron) and ejecta material descended into Earth’s mantle and caused the Pacific-LLSVP and the African-LLSVP. All volcanos of the Pacific Fire Ring and volcanism on Earth can be explained solely by the PT-Impact !
Category: Geophysics

The 40x33 km Elliptical Pilbara Crater Near Port Hedland (NW-Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 20 pages, 33 images, 28 diagrams

Raman spectra of quartz samples collected at the sample sites 25, 11 and 10 provide first evidence for this 40 x 33 km elliptical Impact Crater and for the secondary impact-structures produced by this crater The impact crater is located near Port Hedland in Western Australia. Because of the ellipical shape of the crater it is the result of an oblique impact. That means the impactor which formed the crater impacted in a very shallow angle of probably less then 10°. Because of the shallow impact angle, fragments of the impactor were ejected from the crater and caused complex secondary impact structures 40 km and 80 km further east of this elliptical crater. One of the secondary impact structures is Mount Goldsworthy which contained the world’s richest deposits of ferrous (iron)-ore with a share of up to 68 % iron. Beside the Raman spectra which I present as evidence and first verification for this elliptical crater and its secondary impact structures, there is additional geo-physical evidence provided from a magnetic anomaly map, which clearly indicates the elliptical crater, including a center-line structure in the crater, and which shows the secondary impact structures in detail. The shifts of the main Raman peaks to the lower frequencies 463, 261, 198/205 and 125 cm-1 in a quartz sample from the sample site 25 ( Stone 2 ), which was collected inside the crater area, clearly indicates that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. ( see explanation at page 19 ). Further evidence for an impact event is provided by quartz samples from sample sites 10 & 11 which are located in the area of the secondary impact-structure Mt Goldsworthy. These quartz samples show shifts of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 463, 260, 204 and 126 cm-1 which also indicates a shock pressure of around 22 GPa. Further evidence comes from a microscopic image of sample 25 (stone 3) which indicates planar deformtion features (PDFs). All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1) Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 17. Images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at
Category: Geophysics

The 30 km Mount Warning Impact Crater and the 1.5 km Impact Crater (East-Australia)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 18 pages, 33 images, 20 diagrams

Raman spectra of samples taken from the sample sites 8-B2, 8-B3 and 15-B and 15-C provide evidence for an impact scenario in the Mt Warning area in East-Australia. The 30 km crater-shaped Mt Warning area and a smaller diameter 1.5 km circular crater structure, which is located directly near the crater-rim of the Mt Warning Crater, seem to belong to a large-scale impact event caused by the 320 km Cape York Crater in NE-Australia. The possible 320 km Cape York Crater belongs to a Secondary Impact Crater Chain along the NE-coast of Australia which was caused by ejecta from the giant 1270 x 950 km Permian Triassic Crater in the Arctic Sea. According to the current geological theory Mount Warning is a strongly erroded shield volcano. Refering to my Permian-Triassic Impact Hypothesis Mt Warning is the result of an impact of a big ejecta-fragment from the Cape York Crater or from the PT-Impact Crater, that caused this 30 km secondary crater which fractured Earth’s crust and resulted in the growth of a large shield volcano on top of the crater. The Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 8-B2, from the foot of the hypothtical main crater-wall of the Mt Warning Crater, provides first evidence for an impact event ! The shifts of the main Raman peaks to the lower frequencies 463, 260, 205 and 127 cm-1 which are visible in the Raman Spectra of the quartz-sample, clearly indicate that the quartz from this site was exposed to a shock pressure of around 20 - 22 GPa (see page 17). Further evidence comes from the quartz inclusions of rock sample 8-B3 from the same location. The shifts of the main Raman peaks to the lower frequencies 263 and 205 cm-1 indicate the same shock pressure of around 20 - 22 GPa. The spectra of the rock samples from site 15-B and 15-C, the central mountain in the Mt Warning Crater, all indicate magmatic rocks which seems to confirm the fomation of a volcano in the crater-center, in contrast to the real impact-(wall)-structures on the crater-rim. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope ( wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1 ). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 12. Images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at
Category: Geophysics

The 160 km Salerno Impact Crater (Italy)_raman Spectra of Selected Rock Samples

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 29 pages, 53 images, 41 diagrams

Raman spectra of quartz samples collected at sample site 21 near Ascea on the west-coast of Italy ( near Sapri ) provide first indication for the 160 km Salerno Impact Crater described in my hypothesis. The yet unknown 160 km “Salerno Crater“ belongs to a larger Secondary Impact Crater Chain, which was caused by impacting ejecta material that was ejected by the 1270 x 950 km Permian Triassic Impact Crater (PTI), located in the Arctic Sea near Alaska, according to my hypothesis. The samples which I collected to proof the “Salerno Crater“ did not provide the same clear evidence for a secondary impact crater, as for example the samples from Cabo de Creus in Spain, which provided solid evidence for the 130 x 110 km „Bay of Lyon Impact Crater“, that belongs to the same Secondary Impact Crater Chain as the “Salerno Crater“, caused by the PT Impact-Event. But the Raman spectra of quartz from sample site 21 at least provide a first indication for a shock event. The shifts of the main Raman bands (peaks) to the lower frequencies 261, 204 and 125 cm-1 (Stone 1) and to 260 and 205 cm-1 (Stone 2) which are visible in the Raman Spectra of these quartz-samples from sample site 21 at least give a first indication that the quartz was exposed to a shock pressure in the range of 20 - 22 GPa. The shock pressure probably was just below the treshold of 22 GPa so that the main quartz line at 464 didn’t shift to a lower frequency ( see explanation in the Appendix at page 28 ) Quartz in the samples from the sample site 20 also show shifts in one or two of the main Raman bands ( peaks ) to the lower frequencies 263 and 205 cm-1. The microscopic images of some of the analysed quartz grains in samples from site 21 & 20 may provide further proof for a shock event caused by an impact (see page 5 & 6). The images show complex micro-fracture-patterns in the analysed quartz grains. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope (wavenumber precision <0.1cm-1). Images of the analysed rock samples and photos of the sample sites are in the Appendix at page 24. More images of all sample sites are available on www.permiantriassic.de or www.permiantriassic.at
Category: Geophysics

Evidence for the 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Crater

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 40 pages, 176 figures, 68 diagrams ; added page 13, updated pages 35-37

With this part of my study I want to present mineralogical evidence for my Permian-Triassic Impact-Hypothesis. I do this with the help of selected rock samples where I have found indication for shock-metamorphic effects in the samples. I used Micro-Raman Spectroscopy on quartz-grains in the samples, to provide first evidence for a shock event, that was caused by an Impact. In this study I present spectra of samples from six possible secondary impact craters of the Permian-Triassic Impact-Event (PTI) in Europe & Australia where a clear shift of the main Raman-peaks of the analysed quartz-grains is visible towards lower frequencies. This shift of the Raman peaks indicates that the Quartz was shocked with a shock-pressure in the range of 20–22 GPa. One sample from the possible Ø130x110 km „Bay of Lyon“ Crater even indicated a shock pressure of ≈24 GPa. New pages added to this Update present evidence for secondary-impact-structures in Western-Australia probably caused by the Ejecta-Ray-R4 of the PTI and caused by other ejecta-rays originating either from the BBC (PHC) or from the VLC. I also added links to studies which present indications for secondary impact structures on the Canary Islands and on the island Mallorca (Spain), caused by impacting ejecta from Ejecta-Ray-R1 of the PTI. First I give a short description of each possible Secondary Impact Crater of the PTI with the help of geophysical information (topography, gravity- & magnetic-anomaly maps). Then I show the spectra of the quartz-grains which provide evidence for an impact-shock-event. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman-Microscope with a wavenumber-precision <0.1 cm-1. The measured shifts of the quartz-peaks in the range of 1–4 cm-1 are precise and real. A diagram in the Appendix (see last pages) shows how the shift of the quartz-peaks depends on the shock -pressure the quartz-grain was exposed to, during the impact event. ( my thanks to Dr. Jürgen Sawatzki who supported my analysis). At last I want to ask the scientists who read my study, to help to proof the Permian-Triassic-Crater in the Arctic-Sea. The best way to proof it would be an analysis of drill-core-samples from the rim of the PTI-Crater. But first a proper analysis of samples from the described PT-Secondary Craters, for PDFs (planar-deformation-features) should be done. Please also read the Abstract and pages 4-6 of my Summary of the Geophysical Evidence.
Category: Geophysics

Evidence for the 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Crater

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 39 pages, 170 figures, 68 diagrams ; added 6 pages (29-32 & 34-36)

With this part of my study I want to present mineralogical evidence for my Permian-Triassic Impact-Hypothesis. I do this with the help of selected rock samples where I have found indication for shock-metamorphic effects in the samples. I used Micro-Raman Spectroscopy on quartz grains in the samples, to provide first evidence for a shock event, that was caused by an Impact. In this Update I present spectra of samples from six possible secondary impact craters of the Permian-Triassic Impact-Event (PTI) in Europe & Australia where a clear shift of the main Raman-peaks of the analysed quartz-grains is visible towards lower frequencies. This shift of the Raman peaks indicates that the Quartz was shocked with a shock-pressure in the range of 20–22 GPa. One sample from the possible Ø130x110 km „Bay of Lyon“ Crater even indicated a shock pressure of ≈24 GPa. I also present the analysis results of two more possible secondary impact craters (No. 4 and 6) in Italy and in Australia, where the spectroscopic evidence is a bit weaker. First I give a short description of each possible Secondary Impact Crater of the PTI with the help of geophysical information (topography, gravity- & magnetic-anomaly maps). Then I show the spectra of the quartz-grains which provide evidence for an impact-shock-event. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman-Microscope with a wavenumber precision <0.1 cm-1. The measured shifts of the quartz peaks in the range of 1–4 cm-1 are precise and real. A diagram in the Appendix (see last pages) shows how the shift of the quartz peaks depends on the shock pressure the quartz-grain was exposed to, during the impact event. (my thanks to Dr. Jürgen Sawatzki who supported my analysis). For some other possible impact structures described in my PTI-hypothesis (Canary Islands) I will present some Raman-spectra of selected samples in an Update in the coming months. At last I want to ask the scientists who read my study, to help to proof the Permian-Triassic-Crater in the Arctic-Sea. The best way to proof it would be an analysis of drill-core samples from the rim of the PTI-Crater. But first a proper analysis of samples from the described PT-Secondary Craters No. 1–8, for PDFs (planar deformation features) should be done. Please also read the Abstract and pages 4-6 of my Summary of the Geophysical Evidence
Category: Geophysics

Evidence for the 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Crater

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 33 pages, 130 figures, 56 diagrams

With this part of my study I want to present mineralogical evidence for my Permian-Triassic Impact-Hypothesis. I do this with the help of selected rock samples where I have found indication for shock-metamorphic effects in the samples. I used Micro-Raman Spectroscopy on quartz grains in the samples, to provide first evidence for a shock event, that was caused by an Impact. In this Update I present spectra of samples from six possible secondary impact craters of the Permian-Triassic Impact-Event (PTI) in Europe & Australia where a clear shift of the main Raman-peaks of the analysed quartz-grains is visible towards lower frequencies. This shift of the Raman peaks indicates that the Quartz was shocked with a shock-pressure in the range of 20–22 GPa. One sample from the possible Ø130x110 km „Bay of Lyon“ Crater even indicated a shock pressure of ≈ 24 GPa. I also present the analysis results of two more possible secondary impact craters (No. 4 & 6), one in Italy and one in Australia. where the spectroscopic evidence is a bit weaker. First I give a short description of each possible Secondary Impact Crater of the PTI with the help of geophysical information (topography, gravity- & magnetic-anomaly maps). Then I show the spectra of the quartz-grains which provide evidence for an impact-shock-event. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman-Microscope with a wavenumber precision <0.1 cm-1. The measured shifts of the quartz peaks in the range of 1–4 cm-1 are precise and real. A diagram in the Appendix (see last pages) shows how the shift of the quartz peaks depends on the shock pressure the quartz-grain was exposed to, during the impact event. (my thanks to Dr. Jürgen Sawatzki who supported my analysis). For some other possible impact structures described in my PTI-hypothesis I will present some Raman-spectra of selected samples in an Update in the coming months. At last I want to ask the scientists who read my study, to help to proof the Permian-Triassic-Crater in the Arctic Sea. The best way to proof it would be an analysis of drill-core samples from the rim of the PTI-Crater. But first a proper analysis of samples from the described PT-Secondary Craters No. 1–8, for PDFs (planar deformation features) should be done. Please also read the Abstract and pages 4-6 of my Summary of the geophysical evidence.
Category: Geophysics

Evidence for the 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Crater

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 31 pages, 118 figures, 28 diagrams

With this part of my study I want to present mineralogical evidence for my Permian Triassic Impact Hypothesis. I do this with the help of selected rock samples where I have found shock-metamorphic effects in the samples. I used Micro-Raman Spectroscopy on quartz grains in the samples, to provide first evidence for a shock event, that was caused by an Impact. In this Update I present spectra of samples from five possible secondary impact craters of the Permian Triassic Impact Event (PTI) in Europe & Australia where a clear shift of the main Raman-peaks of the analysed quartz-grains is visible towards lower frequencies. This shift of the Raman peaks indicates that the Quartz was shocked with a shock-pressure in the range of 20 – 22 GPa. One sample from the possible Ø130 x 110 km „Bay of Lyon“ Crater even indicated a shock pressure of ≈ 24 GPa. I also present the analysis results of two more possible secondary impact craters ( No. 4 & 6 ), one in Italy and one in Australia. where the spectroscopic evidence is a bit weaker. First I will give a short description of each possible Secondary Impact Crater of the PTI with the help of geophysical information (topography, gravity- & magnetic-anomaly maps). Then I will show the spectra of the quartz-grains which provide evidence for an impact shock event. All spectra were made with a BRUKER Senterra-II Raman Microscope with a wavenumber precision < 0.1 cm-1. Therefore the measured shifts of the quartz peaks in the range of 1 – 4 cm-1 towards lower frequencies can be considered to be precise and real. A diagram in the Appendix (see last pages) shows how the shift of the quartz peaks depends on the shock pressure the quartz-grain was exposed to, during the impact event. For some of the other impact structures described in my PTI-hypothesis I also want to present a few Raman spectra of selected samples. I will do this in an Update in the coming months. The best way to proof the PT-Impact Crater would be a detailed analysis of drill core samples from the rim of the PT-Crater. But first a proper analysis of samples from the described PT-Secondary Craters No. 1 – 7, for PDFs (planar deformation features) should be done.
Category: Geophysics

Effect of Particle Trapping on Frost Heaving Soils

Authors: Stephen Peppin
Comments: 17 Pages.

A model of freezing soils is developed that accounts for the dependence of the frost heave rate on particle trapping. At sufficiently low cooling rates the soil experiences primary frost heave with a single growing ice lens that rejects all soil particles. At higher cooling rates ice lenses start to engulf the largest soil particles and the rate of segregation heave is reduced. At the highest freezing rates all particles are engulfed by the ice and the pore water freezes in situ. A new kinetic expression for the segregation potential of the soil is obtained that accounts for particle trapping. Using this expression a simple transient frost heave model is developed and compared with experimental data.
Category: Geophysics

The Ø 50 km Archean Impact Crater ( Age >3 ga ) in the Pilbara Craton (West-Australia) – a Place Where Life on Earth Started

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 14 pages, 60 figures , 1 diagram ; added 2 pages

The magnetic-anomaly- and gravity anomaly- map and geological maps indicate a very old  50 km Impact Crater in the Pilbara Craton near Marble Bar / Western Australia. This impact crater (structure) was formed either by a large asteroid or comet (-fragment) which impacted in the Pilbara Craton ( Western Australia) approx 3 -3.5 billion years (Ga) ago. The impact structure, which probably is connected to the Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB) Impact Event which happened 3.26 - 3.24 Ga ago in South-Africa, may be responsible for the development of some of the first life-forms on Earth approximately 3.25 Ga ago ! The Geologist Andrew Y. Glikson pointed out, that there seems to be a clear correlation between the Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB) Impact event 3.26 – 3.24 Ga ago in South-Africa and stratigraphic units of the same age in the Pilbara Craton in West-Australia. I have used Micro-Raman spectroscopy on quartz samples which I collected north of the assumed Pilbara Crater, and I found first proof for an impact shock event as the probable cause of the described impact structure (see weblink). Both impact events, the Impact Event in the Pilbara Craton / West-Australia and the BGB Impact Event in the Kaapvaal Craton in South-Africa probably happened at the same time ! It is possible that both impact events were caused by the same impactor, probably a large carbon-rich Comet. This comet probably collapsed just before the impact, and its fragments then formed the BGB impact structure and the Ø 50 km Pilbara Impact Crater structure described in this study, which later led to the Strelley Pool Chert (stromatolite carbonate platform). The development of the oldest known Stromatolites, that were found close to the two impact sites, in all probability was a longterm result of these two impacts and the organic- material which arrived together with the impactor ( comet ) fragments ! Water which ascended from Earth’s mantle after the impact may have contributed to life development. There are only around 20 documented varieties of stromatolites for the period 2.8 - 3.25 billion years ago. The oldest 3.25 Ga Stromatolites are found in the Hooggenoeg Formation ( Buck Ridge ) / South Africa near the BGB Impact Structure and in the Dresser Formation / West Australia, less than 30 km away from each of the two impact sites !
Category: Geophysics

The 320 km Cape York Impact Crater and the Cape York Crater Chain in North-East Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 14 pages, 86 figures, 1 diagram

The gravity anomaly map of Australia shows traces of a Ø 320 km Impact Crater east of the Cape-York Peninsula. This Impact Crater probably belongs to an impact crater-chain of at least three large craters in the 200–300 km diameter range. That is indicated by different gravity anomaly maps and topographic maps. The assumed crater-chain in all probability represents a secondary crater chain that was caused by the giant 1270x950 km Permian Triassic Crater around 253 million years ago. A manipulated gravity anomaly map, where New Guinea was rotated by 45 degree and moved close to the NE-coast of Australia, seems to confirm that this impact event separated New Guinea from the Australian Plate. New Zealand probably was cut-off from the Australian Plate by the same Impact Event. The impact crater chain caused the initial crack, and the later massive outflow of magma from the Cape York Crater was a driver of the separation of New Guinea and New Zealand from Australia. The traces of this assumed outflow of magma from the Cape York Crater (CYC) are clearly visible on the gravity anomaly map and topographic map. Another indication for the assumed Impact Crater-Chain comes from the triangular shape of the Gulf of Carpentaria in the North of Australia, which probably was formed by the ejecta of another 300 km crater that belongs to the CY-Impact-Crater-Chain. Proof for the impact event comes from Raman spectroscopy analyses of rock samples (Quartz) from the CYC-area. The magma flowing out of the Cape York Crater seems to have caused a large magma enclosure, which not only finalized the break-off of New Guinea and New Zealand from Australia, but in all probability also caused a gigantic flood-event when it finally collapsed. This flood event, is also indicated by traces on the gravity anomaly- and magnetic anomaly map. A chronology of the development and the collapse of the assumed magma enclosure, caused by outflow from the CYC, is shown on page 7. Different smaller secondary impact structures, probably also caused by the CY-Impact, are located along the NE-coast of Australia. Two interesting structures are the 8x7 km elliptical Warwick Impact-Crater and Mt Warning, which isn’t just a collapsed shield volcano, but rather the remain of a volcano that formed on top of the Ø30 km Mt Warning Crater, a secondary Crater of the CY-Impact Event.
Category: Geophysics

Global Impact Events Are the Cause for Plate Tectonics and the Formation of Continents and Oceans ( Part 5 )

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 45 pages, 175 figures, 8 diagrams - added 4 new pages

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater on the ocean-floor of the Arctic-Sea will confirm the hypothesis that Global Impact Events are the cause for plate tectonics, or more precise the cause for a combination of plate-tectonics and expansion-tectonics ! The PT-Impact Crater in all probability was caused by a big comet or asteroid with a diameter of 60 to 200km, which probably collided with our planet at a very shallow angle of less than 8° near the North-Pole, with an estimated low impact velocity of ≈8km/s. A global fracture pattern on Earth’s crust was caused by this powerful impact and the ejecta of the impact, which mainly impacted in the form of powerful ejecta-rays and caused secondary-crater-chains with craters in the range of Ø100-300km on different continents ! The most Impressive are the Ejecta-Rays 1 to 4 in Africa. The sudden decompression of Earth’s mantle, caused by the PT-Impact, triggered an expansion process in the mantle, which was caused by volatiles like H2O, CO2 and SO2 in the mantle-material. The large amounts of ejecta-material, that were caused by the PTI, descended partly in Earth’s mantle and caused the African- and Pacific-LLSVP (& ULVZ) and in this way the volcanism on Earth for the last ≈250Ma ! The PTI also started a plate tectonics process on the expanding Earth-mantle, which is still going on today. In the same way an Expansion-Tectonics- and Plate-Tectonics-process was triggered on Earth, such a process was triggered by other giant impacts on other planets and moons of our Solar System ! There is evidence for other powerful Global Impact Events which occurred on the planets Venus, Mars and Pluto, and on Jupiter’s moon Ganymede, on Saturn’s moons Enceladus & Iapetus, and on Pluto’s moon Charon, and on our Moon ! These global impact events, which occurred on other planets and moons, probably all took place within the last 300 million years ! The root cause of these global impact events, caused by large Impactors in the diameter range of 20-200 km, are probably large amounts of debris located mainly in (or close to) the galactic plane of our galaxy. Tidal debris streams, caused by galaxy-collisions seem to be the source of these debris (asteroids & comets). This dark (low-albedo) debris-material in the galactic plane may represent the long searched-for invisible “Dark Matter” !
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event Caused Secondary-Craters and Impact Structures in India, South-America and Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 42 pages, 212 figures, 6 diagrams and tables, corrected page 3 and 35

First I give an overview of the Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event on the first pages, before I describe the Secondary-Craters and Impact-Structures of the PT-Impact in India, South-America & Australia, starting at page 14. The impactor which caused the 1270x950 km elliptical PT-Impact Crater, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this shallow impact angle of less than 8° and the estimated low impact velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with large fragments of the impactor, is the ejecta material that caused many large secondary craters & impact structures on Earth. This ejecta material had a velocity of less than 8 km/s at impact. The possible large secondary-impact-craters and -structures which I found in India, South-America and Australia were caused by impacting ejecta material that was produced during the PT-Impact Event. A large fragment of the PT-Impactor, or of the ejected material, caused the 450x380 km Bengal Bay Crater (BBC) near the east-coast of India. The gravity anomaly map of India indicates the remaining NW-section of the crater-wall of this Crater, as well as a linear ejecta ray structure which formed the SE-coast of India. There are also other secondary impact structures of the PT-Impact Event visible on satellite maps of India. For example the 30km drop-shaped impact structure that produced the Iron-Ore-Deposits in Sandur. The 400x350 km Port-Headland Crater near the NW-coast of Western Australia, clearly visible on the gravity anomaly map, may be identical to the Bengal Bay Crater in India and it may represent mainly the original SE-section of the BBC. This crater produced ejecta rays, rich in platinum-group elements and gold, which impacted on the Yilgarn Craton. Two more large Craters with Ø>300km were found off the south-coast of West-Australia. And many secondary impact structures were found along the NE-coast of Australia which in all probability were caused by the Cape York crater-chain. An exceptional large 840x630 km elliptical Crater, probably caused by the PT-Event, was found in South-America. This Crater formed the Pantanal-Plain and it probably is responsible for the later Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) around the Triassic/Jurassic boundary.
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event and its Importance for the World Economy and for the Exploration- and Mining-Industry

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 44 pages, 163 figures, 8 diagrams ; added 4 pages, updated the summary

The Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event 253 million years ago produced most mineral- & energy-resources worldwide ! The hard evidence for the correctness of this statement will be the confirmation of the 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater on the ocean floor of the Arctic Sea, as described in my study. The impactor which caused the PT-Impact Crater, was a comet or asteroid with a diameter of 60 to 200 km, that contained iron, a share of precious metals (platinum group elements) and many other elements. The asteroid or comet collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this very shallow impact angle of probably less than 8°, and an estimated low impact velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of partly-melted material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with large fragments of the impactor in the 10–50 km diameter-range, rich in iron and precious metals, is the ejecta-material that caused many large secondary-craters and impact structures on Earth. First I give an overview of the PT-Impact Event, before I describe some selected secondary-craters and impact-structures caused by the PT-Impact, which produced many mineral- & energy-resources worldwide. There are at least 10 secondary-impact craters with diameters ≥ 250 km and around 60 secondary craters with diameters in the 100–150 km range visible on gravity- and magnetic-anomaly maps, and on topographic- and satellite-maps. Regarding un-explored mineral resources the most interesting secondary craters are certainly located within the massive tracks of the PT-ejecta rays R1 to R4, which are clearly visible on gravity anomaly maps of Northern-Africa. Especially the craters located within Ejecta-Ray R4 should be very interesting for the oil-exploration industry ! In the Ejecta-Ray R4 area new discoveries similar to the Ghawar-oil-field in Saudi Arabia should be possible !, which is also located within R4, and was the result of a >300 km Crater ! There is a clear correlation of the main PTI-ejecta rays with the distribution of carbonatites and large oil- & gasfields, especially along Ejecta-Ray R4 (see page 17) ! Other interesting craters for exploration are the >350 km Bengal Bay Crater (India), the Victoria Lake Crater & EIC and the Congo Crater (CIC) in Africa, the Port Headland Crater & the Southern Ocean Craters in Australia, and the big Pantanal-Crater in South-America.
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event Caused Secondary-Craters and Impact-Structures in Europe, Africa and Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 47 Pages. 226 figures, 6 tables, updated page 3 and 37

First I give an overview of the Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event before I describe the Secondary-Craters and -Impact Structures of the PT-Impact, starting at page 12. The large secondary-impact-craters and –structures found in Australia, Europe and Africa were caused by ejecta material that was produced during the PT-Impact, which formed the 1270x950 km elliptical PT-Impact Crater. The impactor which caused the PT-Impact, an asteroid or comet in the diameter-range of probably 60 to 200km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this shallow impact angle of ≤8° and the estimated low impact-velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with fragments of the impactor, is the ejecta material that caused many large secondary craters & impact-structures on Earth. It probably had a velocity of slightly less than 8 km/s. Some large fragments of the impactor or of the ejected material caused a secondary crater chain along the NE-coast of Australia. An exceptional large impact crater of this crater-chain, the >300km Cape York Crater caused a number of large-scale magma eruptions over a long time period, which were partly responsible for the creation of the Pacific-Plate as described in more detail in Part 1 of my hypothesis. In Europe and Africa powerful Ejecta-Rays from the PT-Impact Event caused further secondary impact-crater-chains with crater diameters of up to 200km. The tracks of these crater chains are clearly visible on gravity anomaly maps, which show the reduced thickness of Earth’s crust in these areas (blue areas). It is clearly visible that these tracks of the Ejecta Rays intersect at a certain point which was the impact location of the PT-Impact at the time of impact, in the North of Siberia. The outline of Italy is a direct result of these crater chains as my drawings indicate. Another large ejecta-fragment caused a secondary crater (VLC) at the location where the Victoria Lake is located today. A part of the impacting material was ejected again and caused the VLC-ejecta-rays, another part descended in Earth’s crust and caused the African-LLSVP & Pacific-LLSVP (see Part 1 & Part 6b). The indicated Congo Crater isn’t a result of the PT-Impact. It probably caused the Triassic/Jurassic boundary.
Category: Geophysics

The Permian-Triassic Impact Event Caused Secondary-Craters and Impact Structures in Europe, Africa and Australia

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 47 Pages. 220 figures, 6 tables

I will first give an overview of the Permian Triassic (PT) Impact Event on the first pages before I describe the Secondary-Craters and -Impact Structures of the PT-Impact. The section which describes the assumed secondary craters and impact structures in Europe, Africa & Australia that were caused by the PT-Impact Event starts at page 12. The large secondary- impact craters and –structures found in Australia, Europe and Africa were caused by Ejecta Material that was produced during the Permian Triassic (PT)-Impact Event in the Artic Sea which formed the 1270 x 950 km elliptical PT-Impact Crater. The impactor which caused the PT-Impact, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle. Because of this very shallow impact angle of probably less than 8° and the estimated low impact velocity of around 8 km/s, large amounts of material was excavated from Earth’s crust during the impact. This excavated crust material, together with large fragments of the impactor, is the ejecta material that caused many large secondary craters & impact structures on Earth. It probably had a velocity of slightly less than 8 km/s. Some large fragments of the impactor or of the ejected material caused a secondary impact crater chain along the NE-coast of Australia. An exceptional large impact crater of this crater-chain, the > 300 km Cape York Crater caused a number of large-scale magma eruptions over a long time period, which were partly responsible for the creation of the Pacific Plate as described in more detail in Part 1 of my study. In Europe and Africa powerful Ejecta Rays from the PT-Impact Event caused further secondary impact crater chains with crater diameters of up to 200 km. The tracks of these crater chains are clearly visible on different gravity anomaly maps, which show the reduced thickness of Earth’s crust in these areas ( blue areas ). It is clearly visible that these tracks of the Ejecta Rays intersect at a certain point which was the impact location of the PT-Impact at the time of impact, in the North of Siberia. The outline of Italy is a direct result of these crater chains as my drawings indicate. [Truncated by viXra Admin to < 400 words]
Category: Geophysics

The 1270x950 km Permian-Triassic Impact Crater Caused Earth’s Plate Tectonics of the Last 250 ma

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 31 pages, 135 figures, 1 table

There is evidence for an enormous elliptical Impact Crater with the dimensions of 1270x950 km on the ocean floor of the Arctic Ocean. This elliptical impact crater and the dynamic effects of the ejected material have formed the deep sea basin area below -3000 m in the Arctic Ocean and triggered an expansion tectonics process. This impact crater seems to be responsible for the Permian-Triassic boundary ~253 million years ago, which has caused the biggest mass extinction in Earth’s history. The Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater was formed by an oblique impact. This means that the impactor, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle, of probably less than 8°, with a relative low impact velocity of around 8 km/s and a resulting impact pressure of probably <5 GPa for most (> 90%) of the excavated and ejected material, which makes it difficult to provide mineralogical evidence (shock metamorphism) to proof this global impact scenario. A computer simulation shows a close correlation between the topography of the assumed P/T-Impact Crater and the topography of a simulated elliptical impact crater that was created under similar conditions. The PT-Impact Event caused a gigantic butter-fly-shaped ejecta blanket which covered the majority of the northern- and southern hemisphere. Within the boundaries of this ejecta blanket many large secondary impact craters were formed by the ejecta, with crater diameters of up to 450 km. Please also read Part 2 & 3 of my hypothesis, where I describe many of the secondary impact-craters and -structures in more detail, which were caused by the PT-Impact Event. I have found mineralogical proof for six real PT-secondary-craters. In Europe up to 20 large secondary craters were caused. In India a secondary impactor produced a 450x380km elliptical crater which formed the Bay of Bengal. Similar large secondary craters were caused along the NE-coast and on the NW-coast of Australia and in South-America. And in Africa four extensive impact crater chains were caused. The impulse of the PT-impact and the impulses of the PT-ejecta and -secondary-crater-impacts, caused a global fracture pattern on Earth’s crust that was the trigger for a global expansion-tectonic-process which is still going on today. The ocean-floor age map and the ocean-floor topographic map provide evidence for this expansion tectonic process.
Category: Geophysics

The 1270 X 950 km Permian-Triassic Impact Crater Caused Earth’s Plate Tectonics of the Last 250 ma

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 30 pages, 130 figures, 1 table, updated pages 1, 3 and 23

There is evidence for an enormous elliptical Impact Crater with the dimensions of 1270x950 km on the ocean floor of the Arctic Ocean. This elliptical impact crater and the dynamic effects of the ejected material have formed the deep sea basin area below -3000 m in the Arctic Ocean and triggered an expansion tectonics process. This impact crater seems to be responsible for the Permian-Triassic boundary ~253 million years ago, which has caused the biggest mass extinction in Earth’s history. The Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater was formed by an oblique impact. This means that the impactor, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle, of probably less than 8°, with a relative low impact velocity of around 8 km/s and a resulting impact pressure of probably <5 GPa for most (> 90%) of the excavated and ejected material, which makes it difficult to provide mineralogical evidence (shock metamorphism) to proof this global impact scenario. A computer simulation shows a close correlation between the topography of the assumed P/T-Impact Crater and the topography of a simulated elliptical impact crater that was created under similar conditions. The PT-Impact Event caused a gigantic butter-fly-shaped ejecta blanket which covered the majority of the northern- and southern hemisphere. Within the boundaries of this ejecta blanket many large secondary impact craters were formed by the ejecta, with crater diameters of up to 450 km. Please also read Part 2 & 3 of my hypothesis, where I describe many of the secondary impact-craters and -structures in more detail, which were caused by the PT-Impact Event. I have found mineralogical proof for six real PT-secondary-craters. In Europe up to 20 large secondary craters were caused. In India a secondary impactor produced a 450x380km elliptical crater which formed the Bay of Bengal. Similar large secondary craters were caused along the NE-coast and on the NW-coast of Australia and in South-America. And in Africa four extensive impact crater chains were caused. The impulse of the PT-impact and the impulses of the PT-ejecta and -secondary-crater-impacts, caused a global fracture pattern on Earth’s crust that was the trigger for a global expansion-tectonic-process which is still going on today. The ocean-floor age map and the ocean-floor topographic map provide evidence for this expansion tectonic process.
Category: Geophysics

The 1270 X 950 km Permian-Triassic Impact Crater Caused Earth‘s Plate Tectonics of the Last 250 ma

Authors: Harry K. Hahn
Comments: 30 pages, 125 figures, 1 table

There is evidence for an enormous elliptical impact crater with the dimensions of 1270 x 950 km in the ocean floor of the Arctic Ocean. This elliptical impact crater and the dynamic effects of the ejected material have formed the deep sea basin area below -3000m in the Beaufort Sea. The assumed impact crater seems to be responsible for the Permian-Triassic boundary ~253 million years ago, which has caused the biggest mass extinction in Earth’s history. This Permian-Triassic (PT)-Impact Crater was formed by an oblique impact. This means that the impactor, an asteroid or comet in the diameter range of probably 60 to 200 km, collided with our planet at a very shallow angle, of probably less than 8° , with a relative low impact velocity of around 8 km/s. A computer simulation shows a close correlation between the topography of the assumed P/T-Impact Crater and the topography of a simulated elliptical impact crater that was created under similar conditions. The PT-Impact Event caused a gigantic butter-fly shaped ejecta blanket which covered the majority of the northern- and southern hemisphere Within the boundaries of this ejecta blanket many large secondary impact craters were formed by the ejecta, with crater diameters of up to 450 km. Please also read Part 2 of my hypothesis, where I describe many of the secondary impact-craters and -structures in more detail, which were caused by the PT-Impact Event. In Europe probably up to 20 large secondary craters were caused. In India a secondary impactor produced a 450 x 380 km elliptical crater which formed the Bay of Bengal. A similar crater was caused off the NW-coast of Australia. In South-America a large 840 x 630 km was found. And in Africa four extensive impact crater chains were caused. The impulse of the PT-impact and the impulses of the ejecta and secondary crater impacts, which were produced by the ejecta material, caused a global fracture pattern on Earth’s crust that was the trigger for the break-up of Pangea and a global expansion-tectonic process which is still going on today. The topographic map and the ocean floor age map of the Pacific Plate provide further evidence of the PT-Impact Event and the resulting expansion tectonic process caused by the Permian-Triassic Impact Event.
Category: Geophysics

On Hydrostatic Approximation by R.i. Nigmatulin and L.F. Richardson's Equation.

Authors: I.N. Sibgatullin
Comments: 4 Pages. The russian version of the comments on the paper https://doi.org/10.1134/S0015462818040201 , submitted to the same journlal as the original paper. The english version of the comments is available at https://arxiv.org/abs/2001.08637

The theorem given in 'Equations of Hydro-and Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere when Inertial Forces Are Small in Comparison with Gravity' (2018) is wrong, since the passage to the limit from the system of Navier-Stokes equations to the system of equations of (quasi) hydrostatic approximation, as the vertical acceleration approaches zero, does not exist. The main consequence is that the scales given in the paper are not suitable for application of hydrostatic approximation. The correct asymptotics should be given by the traditional hydrostatic parameter H/L, where H and L are the vertical and horizontal scales of motion. Also scale analysis of the L.F. Richardson's equation for vertical velocity in hydrostatic approximation is not correct. (О гидростатическом приближении Р.И. Нигматулина и уравнении Л.Ф. Ричардсона. Теорема, сформулированная в статье `Уравнения гидро- и термодинамики атмосферы при малых силах инерции по сравнению с силой тяжести' (2018), не верна, поскольку предельного перехода от уравнений Навье-Стокса к системе уравнений гидростатического приближения при вертикальном ускорении, стремящемся к нулю, не существует. Основное последствие заключается в том, что предложенные в статье масштабы не приемлемы для применения гидростатического по вертикали приближения (квазистатического приближения). Корректная асимптотика задается традиционным параметром гидростатичности H/L, где H и L - вертикальный и горизонтальный масштабы течения. Анализ масштабов в уравнении Л.Ф. Ричардсона для вертикальной скорости в гидростатическом приближении также является некорректным. Ключевые слова: гидростатическое приближение, уравнение Ричардсона, квазистатическое приближение, синоптические масштабы, мезомасштабы, микрометеорология, уравнения сохранения, силы инерции.
Category: Geophysics

Study on the Coastal Bathymetry Based on Sentinel-2 Satellite Image and Gebco Data

Authors: GyongBong Ju, CholMin Won, UnChol RI, CholJu Kim
Comments: 10 Pages.

This article proposes a new bathymetry in coastal areas based on multi-spectral satellite images (Sentinel-2 satellite images) and GEBCO (General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans) data. To measure the water depth of the coastal area, an empirical model has selected, and a new model has obtained by interpreting the relationship between each element of the model and the spectral band of the Sentinel-2 satellite image. Also, a sunlight reflection correction model has established to overcome the effect of sunlight reflection, one of the main factors that limit the accuracy of remotely sensed data. Linear regression analysis is performed between the results derived from the new model and the GEBCO data to determine the coefficients and then used the raster calculator to get the desired results. Field bathymetry data is expensive and difficult to obtain, but Sentinel-2 satellite images and GEBCO data can bedownloaded for free from the website at any time. Therefore, it is easy to measure a wide range of coastal water depths in a short time using this method. The proposed bathymetry can quickly realize using QGIS spatial analysis tools.
Category: Geophysics

Gravity Killed the Dinosaurs

Authors: Seamus McCelt
Comments: 6 Pages. optimized size

Whenever the solar system passes through the galactic plane it picks-up an additional amount of dark matter. An increase in dark matter increases the strength of gravity. Increased gravity increases the weight of the dinosaurs and that kills-off the huge dinosaurs in stages. There might have been an asteroid impact. But that is NOT what killed the dinosaurs. There were multiple extinctions - millions of years apart - impact gets ruled out as the sole reason.
Category: Geophysics

Why Didn't They Come Back?

Authors: Somsikov A.I.
Comments: 6 Pages. -

Mystery of abandoned cities is considered
Category: Geophysics

Proposal for Definition and Implementation of a Unified Geodetic Referential for North Africa

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem, Magtouf Rezgui
Comments: 6 Pages. In French. It is a numerical version of the original paper.

In this paper, we present the details of the proposal for definition and implementation of a unified geodetic referential for the countries of North Africa as : - the choice of the system of the referential, - the steps of the realization of the project, - the training of the geodesists working on the project.
Category: Geophysics

Systèmes de Référence, Systèmes Projectifs

Authors: Henri Marcel Dufour, Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 27 Pages. In French. It is an-update version of a paper dated 1979 with comments of the second author.

Many geodetic works currently exist on the surface of the globe, which have developed through regional networks, usually each having a fundamental point, where the astronomical data (\phi= latitude,\lambda=longitude,Az=azimuth) of a reference are confused with the counterparts geodetic data. The comparison of 2 networks, and, step by step, of all the connectable networks, can be done by the analysis of the coordinates of their common points. To this end, we can use 3 types of coordinates: - Geographical coordinates = simple method, but not very convenient for different ellipsoids. - Three-dimensional cartesian coordinates, the most rigorous method in the case where the so-called geoid correction has been made. - Coordinates in conformal projection. An analysis of the main formulas that can be used is studied by the first author in this article.
Category: Geophysics

Report of Spatial Geodesy on the Rapid Implementation of a Unified Geodetic System in Africa

Authors: Fezzani Chedly, Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 13 Pages. It is a numerical edition of the original paper dedicated to the memory of the first author who passed away on March 09, 2019. In French.

Having a unified reference system, established on a universally accepted and utilitarian basis, is an important contribution to the judicious use of geographic information to promote Africa's economic development at the national level, regional and continental. To do so, it is important today to make the best use of space technologies and to assimilate them, especially through Cartographic National Institutions. This paper: - is written for small African mapping institutions, - defines the organizational prerequisites for rapidly implementing the Unified Reference System at the continental level. - serves as a framework to guide the debate on the real questions to be asked in this area.
Category: Geophysics

From Hilbert to Dilbert: a Non-Orthodox Approach to Gravitation, Psychosynthesis, Economics, Cosmology and Other Issues

Authors: Victor Christianto, Florentin Smarandache, Robert Neil Boyd, Yunita Umniyati, Daniel Chandra
Comments: 208 Pages. This book has been published by Divine Publisher. Your comments are welcome

This book took an unconventional theme because we submit an unorthodox theme too. Karl Popper’s epistemology suggests that when the theory is refuted by observation, then it is time to look for a set of new approaches. In the first chapter, it is shown that Hilbert’s axiomatic program has failed not only by experiment (Mie theory does not agree with experiment) but also in terms of logic (Gödel theorem). Therefore we set out a new approach, starting from an old theory of Isaac Newton. Dilbert cartoon series often offer surprising for old problems, especially in this era of corporatocracy. Now we would call such an out-of-the-box solution to the old Hilbert axiomatic program as Dilbert way (or Dilbertian, if you wish). Readers may ask : but what can physicists learn from Dilbert cartoons? While it seems not obvious at first glance, yes we believe there is a great character of Dilbert cartoon, i.e. to put it in one phrase: “out-of-the box and brutally honest.” We do think that such a brutal honesty is also needed in many fields of physics: from theoretical physics to applied physics, as will be discussed throughout this book.
Category: Geophysics